
\y 



A DESCRIPTIVE PAMPHLET OF 

STEREOPTICON SLIDES 

IN 

THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 



m THE COLLECTION OF 

PAUL MONROE 

Professor of the History of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University 



New York 
1915 



STEREOPTICON VIEWS 

IN THE 

HISTORY OF EDUCATION 



IN THE COLLECTION OF 

PAUL MONROE 

Professor of the History of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University 



Set I. Primitive Education. Oriental Education and the Fusion of 

Western Education with Oriental. 

Set 11. Greek and Roman Education. 

Set III. Education During the Middle Ages. 

Set IV. The Universities. 

Set V. Development of Secondary Education. 

Set VI. Development of Elementary Education. 

Set VII. American Education. 

Set VIII. Development of Method. 



New York 
Copyright, 1915. by Paul Monroe 



•^Iv^ 



V 



Descriptive Pamphlet of Stereopticon Views 
in the History of Education 

SET I. PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. ORIENTAL EDUCATION AND 
THE FUSION OF WESTERN EDUCATION WITH ORIENTAL 

(Note. This pamphlet gives references to books where descriptive matter relating: 
to the slides may be readily found. All references to Monroe's Text Book in the 
History of Educatio7i are given as Text Book; to Monroe's Brief Course in the History 
of Education are given as Brief Course: to Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education as Cydo 
pedia. Fuller references will be found in A Syllabus' of the Course of Study in the 
History of Education by the same author, published by the Macmillan Company, price 
25 cents. Full titles of other works referred to in the pamplilet are given in the 
Syllabus.) 

Slide i. Amenophis III and his double. The double is the second 
figure. Maspero, in his Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, says : "When one 
is born into this world, his double, or to give it the native name, the Ka, 
enters it with him. Since this double is usually invisible, the painters and 
sculptors seldom represent it. When they attempt to do so they depict it 
as the exact image of the being to which it is attached. The picture at 
Luxor in which Pharaoh Amenophis III has reproduced the history of his 
childhood is a good example of the fashion in which it should be imagined. 
Amenophis is born, and his double is, like himself, an infant, whom nurses 
cherish with the same care ; he grows and his double grows with him. The 
double faithfully accompanies his prototype through all the vicissitudes of 
his earthly existence. After death it follows him to the tomb and dwells 
there near the mummy, sometimes hidden in the funeral chambers, some- 
times escaping outside, recognizable at night by a pale light, which has 
won for it the name of Luminous, Khu." 

Text Book, pp. 2-6; Brief Course, 6-8. See Frazer, Golden Bough: 
Tylor, Anthropology ; Tylor. Primitive Culture, Vols. I and II. 

Slides 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 and 9 are taken from Spencer and Gillen, Native 
Tribes of Central Australia, (with the permission of the publishers for 
use in this series). This entire volume is a description of these initiatory 
rites. 
\ Text Book, 13-15; Brief Course, 8-10; Cyclopedia V, 31-35. 

Slides 6 and 7 (produced by pertnission of Klinkhardt and Bierman, 
Leipzig) show customs similar to Slides 2-9. General significance is 
found in the references given above. Special description give^i in Africa. 
by Herzog, Adolf Friedrich, of Mecklenburg. 

Slide 10. An account of a military expedition by the Huron Indians 
consisting of five boat loads of warriors led by chief "Kingfisher", taking 
place on the lake and lasting three days, as indicated by the suns under the 
horizon. Many such illustrations are given in the Reports of the United 
States Bureau of Ethnology. 

Text Book. Ch. 8; Brief Course. Ch. I. See Tylor. Early History of 
Mankind. 



^GI,A398152 
FEB 19 1915 "^f 



;"> 



PRIMITIVE EDUCATION 3 

Slide ii. Illustrating the language difficulties in the early stages of 
education. Chinese ideographs indicating the same ideas in different 
styles of writing: (from right to left) the ornamental or seal, the official, 
the literary pattern, the running hand, the free running hand or abbre- 
viated, and the Sung or early printed. The mastery of language becomes 
of necessity the chief end of formal education. 

Text Book, 26-28; Brief Course, 11-12. See Williams, The Middle 
Kingdom, Vol. I, Ch. X. Further references in Syllabus. 

Slide 12. Photograph of a Chinese compositor's font of 8000 type. 
This is from one of the mission publishing houses. The fonts of the 
native firms are more extensive or the printing is done from plates for 
each page engraved on blocks, no movable type being used. 

Same references as above. 

Slides 13, 14, 15. Real and idealized presentation of the old style 
.schools. These yet exist in practically every village. Slides 13 and 15 are 
from native drawings, 14 is a recent photograph. Method of teaching is 
indicated in all. The entire work of the Chinese elementary school can be 
described from these three slides. 

Text Book, 26-34; Brief Course, 15, 17-18; Cyclopedia, Vol. I, pp. 
634-6. See Williams, Middle Kitigdom; Martin, The Lore of Cathay; or 
any work on the Chinese schools. 

Slide 16. The entertainment of the teacher by the pupil. From a 
native drawing. Any description of the Chinese schools will give evidence 
of the high social position, through humble economic one, of the teacher. 

See references above. 

Slide 17 gives the four forms of obeisance: bowing, clasping hands, 
kneeling and prostration (Kowtowing). The Chinese child must know 
on what occasions and for what persons each of these forms is called 
for. This is true of a multitude of other forms and ceremonies. Learn- 
ing these from the moral and religious texts constituted a large part of 
the old education. 

Text Book, 17-23; Brief Course, 11-13. Other references as above. 

Slide 18. Practical instruction of girls in the home. From a native 
drawing. Girls receive little if any literary training, but are quite expert 
in various kinds of industrial activities. 

For status and education of Chinese women see Martin, and Williams 
as above; Smith, Village Life in China; and Burton. Education of Women 
in China. 

Slide 19. A few endowed, provincial, or private schools existed to sup- 
plement the examination system. 

Text Book, 34, and references as above. Such schools required an 
elaborate set of buildings. Present government schools are often on this 
plan, using old temple buildings. 

Slide 20. A tablet from a gate of one of these endowed schools show- 
ing the master with a pupil. The inscription is "The heavenly reason 
penetrates past and the present (i. e. is eternal)." The incription on the 
other crate is "Virtue takes rank with heaven and earth." 



4 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Slide 21. A photograph of the hterary poles erected before the homes 
of those having taken the literary degrees. More frequently these poles 
are erected before the ancestral or clan temples. These are yet very 
numerous but are rapidly falling into decay. 

Text Book, p. 35 ; Brief Course, 16. All accounts of Chinese educa- 
tion contain description of the examination system. 

Slides 22, 23, 24, 26, arc photographs of the cells or halls of the old 
examination system, almost all destroyed since the abandonment of the 
system in 1905. 

Text Book, 34-39; Brief Course, 16-17. Other references as above. 

Slide 25 is a reproduction of an old drawing showing the successful 
examination candidate worshipping before Confucius. 

Slide 27 shows the worship of Confucius in an old time school. The 
picture of Confucius, or a large paper containing characters representing 
the leading virtues, some of his sayings, or even his name, are the only 
symbols or objects of worship in Confucian temples or in schools. 

Slide 28 is a photograph, taken by the author, of a kindergarten held 
in a converted Confucian temple where the children were saluting the por- 
trait of Froebel probably in much the same spirit as others had previously 
done before the picture of Confucius. 

Slides 29 to 37 are photographs of western schools in China, 31. 32. 34 
of government schools, the remainder of mission schools. The govern- 
ment schools are strongly influenced by Japanese school method, as these 
in turn had been by the German. This is evidenced in the illustration. 
The mission schools follow closely the methods of the home country. A 
recent bulletin by Dr. King, issued by the U. S. Bureau of Education at 
Washington," and The Chinese System of Public Education, by Ping Wen 
Kuo, a Teachers College publication, give the latest account of the transi- 
tion now going on. See also Lewis, Educational Conquest of the Far East. 

Slide 38. A photograph of the city walls of Peking, pierced for the 
railway. Similar cases of juxtaposition of the medieval and the modern 
are found throughout China, affecting every phase of life. 

Slide 39 is a photograph of a modern Japanese school showing the 
work in arithmetic on the abacus. (Cf. with slide 32.) While the method 
is entirely modernized after the German model, some of the old aids are 
retained. Many mechanical contrivances are used as aids in arithmetic. 

Slides 40-45, are photographs of the schools of the Japan Woman's 
University at Tokio. These schools are similar to those annexed to the 
deparLments of education in several American universities. Every phase 
of the most recent educational work in America or Europe is to be found 
and at the same time a perpetuation of much of the old as in the instruc- 
tion in etiquette and aesthetics. Many if not most public schools have a 
special room for teaching etiquette. As a rule the schools are far better 
provided with all forms of visual aids to teaching than are American 
schools. See Lewis, Educational Conquest of the Far East; Cyclopedia, 
Vol. 3, pp. 518-528, and especially see Lewis, Sharp, Thwing, or Kikuchi, 
Japanese Educatioti. 



PRIMITIVE EDUCATION 5 

Slide 46. A photograph of an old type Philippine school, with boys 
sitting on the floor, engaged in memoriter literary work. 

Slide 47. A photograph of industrial work in Philippine schools under 
American regime. Every child spends at least two 'hours per day in some 
form of industrial work. The products are of commercial value and are 
sold, the profits going to the child. 

See annual Reports of the Director of Education of the Philippine 
Islands, to be obtained from the Bureau of Insular Affairs, Washington. 

Slide 48. The school garden is always in connection with home 
gardens. The Filipino people did not garden and had few vegetables and 
a very meagre diet. The American schools have vastly improved health 
and economic conditions through the school gardens. 

See Reports as above. 

Slide 49. Corn has been introduced to supplement rice as the staple 
diet. Important since the rice crop often failed. References as above. 

Slide 50. The attempt is made to influence the Filipino home through 
the school. Domestic science is taught in a building designed to serve as 
a model Filipino home. 

For further material see Reports as above. There are many illustra- 
tions in these. The Bureau of Science, Manila, sells many slides at 50 
cents per slide, showing phases of Filipino life, but unfortunately none 
relate directly to the schools. 

Note: Many illustrations relating to topics in this first series can be had from the 
National Geographic Magazine. They will reproduce these in slide form for 75 cents 
per slide but will allow no reproduction. 



Descriptive Pamphlet of Stereopticon Views 
in the History of Education 

SET II. GREEK AND ROMAN EDUCATION 

(Note. This pamphlet gives references to books where descriptive matter relating 
to the slides may be readily found. All references to Monroe's Text Book in the 
History of Education are given as Text Book; to Monroe's Brief Course in the History 
of Education are given as Brief Course; to Monroe's Cyclopedia of EduC'ition as Cyclo- 
pedia. Fuller references will be found in A Syllabus of the Course of Study in the 
History of Education by the same author, published by the Macmillan Company, price 
25 cents. Full titles of other works referred to in the pamphlet are given in the 
Syllabus.) 

Slide 51. Drawing from a Greek vase showing a youth (Heracles) 
with his pedagogue. The two are evidently on their way to or from 
school ; the chaplet on the brow of the youth together with the spear in 
his hand would indicate that the youth had just won honor in the exercises 
of the gymnastic school. The lyre in the hand of the pedagogue would 
indicate that they were on the way to the music school. Such illustrations 
on Greek vases are common. 

Slide 52. Lesson on flute and lyre from a Greek cylix or drinking 
vase by Hieron about the 4th century B. C. To the left is the pedagogue ; 
next a boy playing the flute while his teacher is instructing him or is 
repeating a poem to his accompaniment ; further to the right is a boy with 
the lyre awaiting instruction ; to the right is the boy's pedagogue. For 
all of the slides 51-76 see the general descriptions of Greek school work 
as given in Text Book, Source Book, Brief Course, or any text book on 
the subject. See Laurie, Davidson, Aristotle and Greek Education, and 
especially Freeman, Schools of Hellas. Also Plato's dialogue Lysis. The 
colors on all these colored slides are fac simile reproduction of the 
original. The defects, where such are shown, are all now found in the 
original vase. 

Slide 53. A music school scene from a Greek hudria or water bottle. 
From left to right are (i) a boy playing the fifes or flute; (2) boy 
taking flute from case; (3) boy with lyre playing with pet leopard while 
waiting his turn; (4) master with harp accompanying; (5) youth who is 
playing the flute; (6) small boy, possibly a servant; (7) youth entering 
from gymnastic school as is shown by close-wrapped garment; (8) youth 
entering also from gymnastic school as shown by javelin he is carrying. 
All the boys wear chaplets probably won in gymnastic school. 

References as above. 

Slide 54. A Greek music school, companion-piece to Slide 53. On the 
left is a pedagogue leading a pet leopard belonging to youth who precedes 
him carrying a lyre. In center is the master giving instruction on the lyre 
to youth in front of him ; to the left are a youth departing and one who has 
just come from the gymnastic school as shown by the chaplet and the 
manner in which he wears his garments. References as above. 



CREEK AND ROMAN KDUCATION 7 

Slide 55. A Greek music school from a cylix by Douris about 4th 
century B. C. This with its companion-piece (56) are the most frequently 
shown pictures of the Greek school. The vase is now preserved in the 
Berlin museum. To the left is a master playing a flute while a boy repeats 
the poem to his accompaniment. In the center a master corrects a written 
exercise, while on the left is a pedagogue. On the wall hang a lyre and 
cases for books or manuscripts. 

Slide 56. The remainder of the decorative band shown as Slide 55. 
On the extreme right and left of the wall hang vases similar to the one 
from which the illustrations are taken. Also on the wall are lyres, a tiute 
case and a satchel for books. To the left sits a boy receiving instruction 
on the lyre from his master. In the center is a boy repeating a portion of 
the Homeric poems to his teacher who holds the scroll. To the right with 
his legs crossed, as no freeman would sit, is the pedagogue. 

Slide 57. An abacus recently discovered (1899) at Salamis. This in- 
dicates a phase of school work which came in at a later period. It was 
not found in old Greek education. See references above. 

Slide 58. A frieze from a Greek temple showing the curriculum of 
the gymnastic school. This is now preserved in the Louvre. To the left 
is (i) the paedotribe or gymnastic master; (2) then a youth throwing the 
discus; (3) a youth casting a javelin; (4) two youths wrestling; (5) the 
next figure is a spectator: (7) the next represents jumping; (8) the fol- 
lowing is the paedotribe with his palm branch ; the two following genii 
are in a running race ; the last two in a boxing match. Between these 
last is another figure, either a spectator or an assistant or pupil teacher 
of whom there were probably many. These may appear also in other vase 
school scenes. 

In addition to references above there are numerous ones on Greek 
gymnastics and physical education including most of the histories of 
Greek education and of physical education. See especially Burette, His- 
toire des Athletes; Lobker, Die Gymnastic der Hellenen; Krame, Die Gym- 
nastic der Hellenen; Jacqu, Die Gymnastic der Hellenen; Fedde, Ditten- 
berger, &c. (also in German). See Becker's Charicles (translated). Guhl 
& Koner, Life of Greeks and Romans; Gulick, Life of the Ancient 
Greeks; Hill, Illustrations from School Classics; Gardiner, Greek Ath- 
letic Sports and Festivals. 

Slide 59. Drawing from a Greek vase of youths in a running race. 
For the place of running in this gymnastic training and its educational 
value, see references above, especially Davidson's Aristotle. 

Slide 60. Drawing from a Greek vase showing youths running armed 
with shield. This was a part of the training of the Ephebi giving them 
skill in acting in unison and in handling their armor. Spears were also 
carried in some exercises. 

References, see above. 

Slide 61. A vase illustration showing a gymnastic school, from a cylix. 
Youths to the left are wrestling, the one to the right is loosening the 



e STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

ground for jumping. In the center is the paedotribe or master of gym- 
nastics indicated here as usually by the forked stick in his hand. This 
with some companion-pieces have recently been reproduced (only in part) 
in Freeman (as aljove). For references to Greek athletics and their 
educational significance, see above. 

Slide 62. Companion-piece to the above from the same cylix. Here 
the boys in the center are boxing, with their hands bound with leather 
thongs ; often small stones or pieces of lead were sewn in these thongs. 
A paedotribe is actively directing the contest. To the right a boy is 
jumping, with weights in his hands. These he probably throws behind 
him as he jumps. To the left a boy is measuring the length of a jump. 
The right hand figure of the previous slide joins this, so as to give two 
youths with the tape line. 

References as above. 

Slide 63. Drawing from a Greek vase showing two youths wrest- 
ling before the paedotribe. The paedotribe carries the symbol of his 
authority, the forked branch. Classical dictionaries give a great variety 
of forms of wrestling, which contemporary Greek literature describes. 
It is evident from the references that different gymnastic masters were 
noted for the particular combination of movements which they taught as 
efifective forms of wrestling. So that the contest was a complicated 
form of exercise which could be taught by observation and instruction. 
For its educational value, see Freeman or Davidson, or the references in 
Greek literature to which these authors refer. 

Slide 64. The Greek pancratium, from a vase drawing. The pan- 
cratium was a form of contest in which any method of overcoming an 
opponent was permitted. It was cruel and brutal, and often resulted in 
maiming for life. For these reasons it was discontinued by the Athenians, 
but it was often used by other Greeks to develop hardihood. 

See references as above. 

Slide 65. Drawing from a Greek vase showing the development of 
boxing into professionalism. The Greeks discountenanced any form of 
professionalism in athletics as being unsymmetrical and destructive of all 
educational value. Here is shown the over-developed physique with the 
suggestion of neglect of other worthier forms of activity. This slide 
together with a number of the above are taken from the Monumcnti 
Inediti dell Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica, which contains a 
large number of similar illustrations with descriptive texts. 

Slide 66. A piece of Greek statuary known as "Hercules Shooting the 
Bow". It gives a representation of the instruction of the Greek youth in 
the use of the bow. Educationally this had for its value the coordination 
of hand and eye, the development of precision, coolness, steadiness and 
accuracy of sense perception ; its public value lay in the direct preparation 
it afforded for military service. Every Athenian youth had to learn how 
to use the bow. References as above. 



GRKEK AND ROMAN EDUCATION 9 

Slide 67. From a Greek amphore, showing a myrtle-crowned youth 
returning from the hunt. The hare tied to his right arm evidences his 
success. The knobbed stick with its crook probably shows the weapon 
used. Hanging to his left arm is the oil flask which reveals his destina- 
tion as the g3'mnasium. On the reverse (not shown here) is a youth 
offering a myrtle crown to the successful boy. For references see above. 
Also Xenophon's references to hare hunting. 

Slide 68. A reproduction of a drawing showing a youth hunting deer 
This exercise was more common with the Spartans and with the Greeks 
living in wilder regions. It was often combined with horseback riding. 
Here, as usually, the youth accompanies his inspirer or guardian. Such 
hunting scenes form frequent decoration for Greek vases. 

Slide 69. Decoration from a Greek cylix attributed to Euphronios. 
This is a picture of youths in a riding school, one of them on horseback, 
the other mounting with the aid of a pole. A riding master is on the left 
giving directions to the boy as to mounting. This activity serves not only 
as a part of their physical education hut is directly in line with their 
military training. 

See references as above. 

Slide 70. A similar illustration from the same artist, showing a race of 
the Ephebes in the riding school. The goal post is indicated on the right. 
The youths are riding with spear and armor, accustoming them further 
to military activity. 

References as above. 

Slidi; 71. A Greek youth chariot racing, from a vase decoration. The 
Athenian source of the illustration is indicated by the owl. The dis- 
figurement of the illustration is a result of the present condition of the 
vase. The slide, when in colors, is a facsimile. 

For references see above. Also, for the place of horse and chariot 
racing in Greek culture, see Aristophanes, Clouds (selection in Monroe's 
Source Book). 

Slide 72. The west frieze from the Parthenon showing the Pan- 
athenaic procession of the Ephebi on horseback. This was both a 
culmination of the Ephebic training and the chief ceremony of worship 
of the year at Athens. The object of the sculptor of the Parthenon 
frieze was to exhibit in full this Panathenaic procession. This west end 
represents the preparation and start of the procession and is a full repre- 
sentation of the culmination of the Ephebic training. For the Parthenon 
see Murray, The Sculptures of the Parthenon. For the Ephebic training 
see references above and in Syllabus. 

Slide 73. Spartain maiden racing. A statue from the Vatican museum. 
This is one of the most beautiful and graceful pieces of Greek statuary 
now preserved. 

For the place of physical education in the training of Spartans and for 
the training of girls, see as above Freeman, Laurie, Davidson, also Plu- 



lO STEREOPTICON VIEWS IX THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

tarch's Lycur<jHs (selection in Monroe's Source Book.) Other references 
as above. 

Slide 74. A Greek maiden dancing, from a vase dravi^ing. In the 
vase decorations dancing girls are very numerous. This one, however, is a 
rarer type, showing dancing as a form of physical education. 

See references as above, especially to Slide 73. 

Slide 75. Plan of a Greek gymnasium, after Vitruvius. While no con- 
temporary drawings are left of the Greek gymnasium, numerous descrip- 
tions or references are found from which an accurate reconstruction can 
be made. This, however, is from the contemporary Roman authority on 
architecture. 

Vitruvius (writing about 13 B. C.) gives a brief description sum 
marized by Peck as follows : 

"The peristylium (D) in a gymnasium is in the form of a square or 
oblong, and is two stadia (1200 feet) in circumference. It consists of 
four porticoes. In three of them (A, B, C) spacious exedrae with seats 
were built: one (Q), in passing out from the peristyle, and, on the right 
lighted in intellectual conversation, might assemble. A fourth portico (E), 
towards the south, was double, so that the interior walk was not exposed 
to bad weather. The double portico contained the following apartments : 
The Ephebeum (F), a spacious hall with seats in the middle, and one- 
third longer than broad, destined for the exercises of youths. On the 
right is the Coryceum (G), used for exercises with the sack, perhaps the 
same room which in other cases was called Apodyterium ; then came the 
Conisterium (H) adjoining, where the body was sprinkled with dust; and 
next to the Conisterium, in the returns of the portico, is the cold bath. 
On the left of the Ephebeum is the Elaeothesium, where persons were 
anointed by the aliptae (K). Adjoining the Elaeothesium is the Frigi- 
darium (L), or more probably the Tepidarium, where there was a luke- 
warm bath. From thence is the entrance to the Propnigeum (M), on the 
returns of the portico ; near which, but more inward, behind the place 
of the Frigidarium, is the vaulted sudatory (N), in length twice its 
breadth, which has on the returns the Laconicum (O) on one side, and 
opposite the Laconicum the hot bath (P). These are the more essential 
and primitive parts of a gymnasium. But in the time of Vitruvius 
important additions were made to it. On the outside three porticoes 
were built: one (Q), in passing out from the peristyle, and, on the right 
and left, the two stadial porticoes (R, S), of which the one (S) that faces 
the north is made double and of great breadth, the other (R) is single, 
and so designed that in the parts which encircle the walls, and which 
adjoin the columns, there may be margins for paths not less than ten 
feet; and the middle is so excavated that there may be two steps, a foot 
and a half in descent, to go from the margin to the plane (R), which 
plane should not be less in breadth than twelve feet; by this means those 
who walked about the margins in their apparel would not be annoyed by 
those who were exercising themselves." 



CREKK AND ROMAN EDUCATION II 

Adjoining these porticoes (R and S) are the uncovered walks (U) 
for exercise in fair weather. Beyond is the Stadium (W) to accom- 
modate a large group of spectators. In the enclosure is the grove or 
garden. 

Slide 76. A reconstruction of a Spartan gymnasium after Johann. 
This shows the general court of the gymnasium. In the background is a 
youth throwing the discus. In the middle distance a youth swinging the 
weights ; in the foreground youths wrestling or boxing, with the gym- 
nasium master giving instruction to a group of spectators. For the 
importance of wrestling see Davidson and other references above. On 
the right in the peristyle is a group of spectators resting from their 
exercise. 

Slide "J"]. A bird's-eye view of Sparta, after Hoffman. To the right 
is the Acropolis. In the middle foreground is the market place as shown 
and described in Slide 78. 

For the influence, historical and educational, of the geographical 
location of Sparta, see Text Book, pp. 70-52; Brief Course, pp. 34-6; 
Laurie and other references as above. Also Buckle, History of Civilisa- 
tion, Ch. I. 

Slide 78. A reconstruction of the market place of Sparta after Falke. 
In the background is the citadel. In the centre is a statue of the Spartan 
people; on the right is the temple containing the spoils of the Persian 
wars. The importance of the general public social life of the Spartans is 
indicated in all accounts of these people. From the participation of the 
youth in the life of the adults came their education, mostly informal. 

See especially Lj'curgus as quoted in the Source Book. 

Slide 79. The dromos in Sparta, a reconstruction by Hoffman. In the 
centre is the race course and exercise ground. In the middle left is the 
temple of Apollo ; in the middle right is a gymnasium. In the left fore- 
ground is the altar of Herakles. 

Slide 80. A general view of Athens, at the time of Hadrian. A 
restoration by Biihlmann. In the left background is the Acropolis with 
the Parthenon, the statue of Athena, and the Erectheon. Scattered through 
are various temples. In the foreground, slightly to the right, is a Roman 
bath. Above this towards the center is a theatre. In the centre fore- 
ground are the gardens and temple of Aphrodite. In the right foreground 
is a country house; in the left foreground is a stadium — partly shown. 

For the historical and educational significance of the geographical 
situation of Athens, see references to Slide 77. 

Slide 81. Restoration of Greek theatre — that of Dionysus at Athens, 
by Biihlmann. There are many remnants of Greek theatres, the photo- 
graphs of which would serve as illustrations of the importance of the 
Greek theatre as an educational institution. This restoration indicates the 
intimate character of the theatre and suggests the possibility of its cduca- 



12 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

tional value. The central circle is the place for the chorus, with the altar 
of Dionysus in the center. Above is the orchestra, though many hold that 
the raised place for the orchestra was a Roman innovation. Farther be- 
yond and slightly above is the stage backed by the proscenium with the 
wings on either side. Above and beyond the spectators seen on the left is 
the portico or enclosed colonnade. This theatre is the oldest known one 
of Athens, and received its permanent form about 330 B. C. 

For educational significance of the drama and of the Greek theatre, 
see Mahaffy, Social Life in Greece, and his other works. Dickinson, 
Greek View of Life, and the general references to Greek life given above 
and in the Syllabus. For the Greek theatre, see any classical dictionary. 

Slide 82 is a restoration of a Greek comic theatre by Gehrts. This 
indicates the still more intimate character of the comedy. 

See references to Slide 81. Read also selections from the Clouds of 
Aristophanes in Source Book. 

Slide 83. A Greek banquet scene, restored by Fuerbach. This gives 
the scene from Plato's Symposium which in itself is the best evidence of 
the character and the educational significance of the Greek banquet. To 
the right is Socrates engaged in dialogue ; in the centre is the host Agathon. 
To the left enters a group of revelers led by Alchbiades. 

For references, in addition to the dialogue of Plato, see Mahaffy, 
Dickinson, and other references as above. 

Slide 84. The Olympian games, restoration by Knille. The character 
of the Olympic games is given in any classical dictionary or work on 
Greek life and customs as above. 

For educational significance, see Davidson, Mahaffy, Laurie, or others 
as above. 

Slide 85. A restoration of Olympia by Thiersch. In the centre fore- 
ground is the temple of Zeus. In the right foreground is the gate of the 
processions ; above to the right is the stoa, and above that the stadium. 
In the upper centre is the Hill of Kronos. At its foot to the left is a 
theatre ; below that, in the enclosure, is the circular temple to Philip ot 
Macedon. In the left foreground is a gymnasium. In the background are 
the Olympian mountains. 

See references as to Slide 84. 

Slide 86. Relics of a Roman school, from wall paintings now found in 
the museum at Naples. The left hand case contains 3 styli for writing; 
to the upper right is a capsa containing rolls or books. Leaning against 
it is such a book. In the lower illustration the capsa is opened showing 
the scrolls. Leaning against it on the left is a writing tablet. 

See Guhl and Koner as above; also Becker's Gallus; and descriptive 
texts on Roman schools as given in the Syllabus, especially Clark. 

Slide 87. Dipticha or Roman tablets for writing, with stili. These 
were found on the Esquiline Hill, Rome, and arc preserved in the local 



GREEK AND ROMAN EDUCATION I3 

museum. The tablets were covered with wax and were used for account- 
ing or in schools. The name on the upper end of the left illustration, 
(xalleri Concessi. shows its owner to have been a man of some importance. 
References as above. 

Slide 88. A youth reading in a librarj-, photographed from a relief on 
a sarcophagus, in the garden of the Villa Balestra, Rome. The youth 
holds a scroll, rolling it from right to left. He is facing an armarium or 
hook press, containing scrolls. On it is a reading desk. On the lower 
shelf is a bowl for ink or colors. 

References as above. 

Slide 89. A Pompeian fresco of a reader in a library. This shows 
clearly the character of a Roman book or manuscript. The writing is in 
columns, and the reader unrolls from right to left, rolling up the part 
which he has read. Usually the rolling is inwards, here it is outward and 
necessitates rerolling the scroll to keep the writing on the inside. 

References as above. 

Slide 90. A Roman library from a piece of statuary found among the 
Roman nuns at Treves. Here are shown a number of divisions in shelving 
or "pigeon holes" each containing a number of scrolls. The end of each 
roll is furnished with a ticket, the index or titulus, containing the title of 
the book. These were often of a decorative character. 

Slide 91. The life of a Roman citizen as shown by a sculpture on a 
sarcophagus. This and 92 are now in the Louvre, Paris. The first 
scene shows the infant in its mother's arms, and the oversight of the 
father. The second illustrates the play time of youth — engaged in racing 
in goat carts — the miniature chariot race. The central scene is the school, 
the teacher in the centre expounding to the youths on either side. 
One of them is engaged in declamation or oration. The last scene is the 
Roman citizen reclining at a meal being served, while his children are 
gathered around him. The entire series indicates a domesticity foreign to 
all similar Greek scenes. 

See references to Slide 92. 

Slide 92. The life of a Roman boy shown by a sculpture on a sarcoph- 
agus. The left shows his infancy, the care of the mother and the over- 
sight of the father. The second scene illustrates the father's personal 
care of early childhood. The third scene illustrates the play life of the 
little boy, driving a goat cart even thus early preparing for his chariot 
duties as a soldier. The last scene is the youth declaming before his 
master. For discussion of the importance of declamation and the char- 
acter of Roman formal education see Text Book, pp. 185-216; Brief 
Course, pp. 84-99, or other texts such as Laurie, Graves, or Clark, Educa- 
tion of Children at Rome. Other references in Syllabus. 

Slide 93. Photograph of a sculpture on a Roman sarcophagus giving 
an elaborate representation of a Roman school. This is a rare represen- 



14 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

tation of scholars in chairs, with satchels for counters and with some of 
the arrangement of a modern school room that is to be found in other 
Roman illustrations. This elaboration of the schoolroom is perhaps due 
to the fact that the sculpture is of a late period, and from the province of 
Gaul. 

Slide 94. An educated slave with his master and mistress, from a 
Roman sarcophagus. The slave (or boy) holds an abacus on which he 
is evidently making an accounting. The master reclines as he receives 
this account The presence of the mistress indicates her participation in 
household affairs. 

Slide 95. A view of one of the public buildings in Pompeii. This is 
the one usually identified as a school, though there is some doubt. The 
identification rests wholly upon the presence of the rostrum from which 
the school boy gave his declamation or oration. See details of Roman 
education in references above. In colors the slide represents the present 
color effects on these ruins. 

Slide 96. A restoration of a Roman school. In the centre is the 
rostrum which was the central feature — the theatre probably represents 
only the more elaborate schools. But the emphasis on rhetoric, declam- 
ation and oration indicates truthfully the center of all formal education. 

References as above. 

Slide 97. A Pompeian mosaic showing music and dancing in a Roman 
school. As neither was valued by the Romans for educational purposes, 
this shows the Grecian influence existent in southern Italy. The masks 
indicate the preparation for some theatrical performance. 

Slide 98. Scene at a Roman school, from a fresco at Herculaneum. 
It shows a school held in a portico, hence under Grecian influences. On 
the left stands the master facing the youths seated with tablets in their 
hands. Standing or walking in the portico are other youths, some engaged 
in study. On the right is a scene of corporal punishment administered by 
one of the boys or by an assistant teacher. See references from Alartial 
and Plautus in Source Book for the extent of corporal punishment in 
Roman schools. Other references as above. 

Slide 99. The philosopher as household chaplain and teacher. A 
restoration by Friedrich. This custom is an evidence of the fusion of 
Greek and Roman culture. Falk says of the custom : "While in many 
instances it represented a genuine interest in learning and a desire to have 
leadership in a moral life, in many others it represented only a social fad. 
When thus followed by the fashionable women of the times it was but 
another evidence of the superficiality and insincerity of the times." In 
many respects this custom was similar to that of household chaplains in 
feudal society or among the English gentry. See Dill or other works on 
late Roman society. 



GREEK AND ROMAN EDUCATION I5 

Slide ioo. A grafite drawn by a school boy — found on the walls of the 
palace of the Caesars. It gives the impression of his work as that of an 
ass turning a mill, probably the first characterization of Latin grammar as 
a "grind". The inscription reads "Labor on, little ass, just as I have 
labored, and may it be of profit to you." 



Descriptive Pamphlet of Stereopticon Views 
in the History of Education 

SET III. EDUCATION DURING THE MIDDLE AGES 

(Note. This pamphlet gives references to books where descriptive matter relating 
to the slides may be readily found. All references to Monroe's Text Book in the 
History of Education are given as Text Book; to Monroe's Brief Course in the History 
of Education are given as Brief Course: to Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education as Cyclo- 
pedia. Fuller references will be found in A Syllabus' of the Course of Study in the 
History of Education by the same author, published by the Macmillan Company, price 
25 cents. Full titles of other works referred to in the pamphlet are given in the 
Syllabus.) 

Slide 10 i. Two illustrations, one of knights tilting and one of boys 
practicing at tilting as a game. These are both from manuscripts of the 
13th century found in the Royal Library. Full description of these and 
of the five following slides is to be found in Strutt's Sports and Pastimes 
of the Middle Ages. See also Furnivall, Early Education in England; Text 
Book. 284-288; Brief Course. 147-50; Cyclopedia I, 639-642; Cornish, 
Chivalry. 

Slide 102. Youths tilting in boats — one of the sports training for 
knightly activities. From a manuscript, of English origin, of the T4th 
century. References as above. 

Slide 103. One of the very few illustrations to be found of actual 
instruction in the arts of chivalry. It represents a gallery in which pages 
and squires are practicing crossbow shooting under supervision. This 
comes from a manuscript of English origin dated 1496. 

References as above. 

Slide 104 represents ladies hunting accompanied by their pages. 
This indicates one of the duties for which the page was trained or rather 
the process of training itself, since training and instruction in these arts 
were seldom difTerentiated. This is from a manuscript of the 14th century 
of English origin. 

References as above. Tn addition see the works on Chivalry, especially 
Cornish, Gautier, Mills, Williams. 

Slide 105. The page serving at table. A handsome medieval illum- 
ination from a 14th century manuscript of French origin. This is given 
in Lacroix, Moeurs ct Usages — Le Moyenage. 

General description of customs in references as above. Slides 101-105. 
T 07-108 and lOQ, given in their original colorings, are excellent examples 
of medieval illuminations. 

Slide 106. The squire, from the Ellsmere manuscript copy of Chaucer 
For this description of the squire and his training see Chaucer, Canter- 
bury Tales. Other references as above. 

16 



KDUCATION DURING THE MIDDLK AGES I7 

Slide 107. A squire and a knight at chess. Chess was a popular 
amusement, a form of training and one of the arts or accomplishments 
expected of the knight. From a 14th century manuscript presented to the 
Queen of France. 

References as above. 

Slide 108. Reproduction from a manuscript. The initiation of a 
knight showing cooperation of the church with the political or feudal 
authorities, and the sanction given to the ceremony by the ladies. This 
ceremony is the culmination of the chivalric education. 

References as above. 

Slide 109 A tournament between a knight pennant and a knight ban- 
neret, an illumination from a French manuscript of the 13th century. 
The pages and squires are acting as heralds, minstrels, and directors of 
the ceremonies. The scene represents the appeal to heaven by the con- 
testants. 

References as above. 

Slide 110. A medieval woodcut of the trivium, of German origin 
(about 1500). representing grammar as sowing the grain, rhetoric as grind- 
ing the flour, and logic as baking the bread. The latter cut has a distinct 
suggestion of the trite reference to an illogical person as being "half 
baked". 

The best references on the Seven Liberal Arts and the medieval 
curriculum are Abelson, The Seven Liberal Arts (Teachers College Con- 
tributions to Education), and Parker's The Seven Liberal Arts, in the 
English Historical Review, Vol. V. See also Text Book, pp. 271-4; Brief 
Course, pp. 122-3. Other references in Syllabus. For this particular illus- 
tration see Reiche, Die Gclehrte in der dcutschen Vergangenheit. 

Slide in. A photograph of the symbolic representation of the Seven 
Liberal Arts, carved in stone in the portals of the Cathedral at Freiburg, 
Germany. From left to right the figures represent grammar, dialectic, 
rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, music, astronomy, medicine, architecture. 

References as above. 

Slide 112. The curriculum and the entire world of learning during 
the 15th century. The title page of the Margarita Philosophica. The 
title reads : Epitome of all Philosophy, otherwise The Philosophical 
Pearl, treating of all Known Things; with Additions, such as are not to 
be found elsewhere. In the lower foreground, within the circle, are the 
muses of the seven liberal arts: From the center to the left, is (i) 
grammar with a horn book; (2) rhetoric vv'ith a scroll; (3) logic disputing, 
as shown by the gestures. In the center is arithmetic with an abacus. To 
the right is (i) music with a harp; (2) geometry with a compass; (3) 
astronomy with a globe. Above is the three-headed muse of philosophy. 
Natural philosophy is represented in the lower left by Aristotle, moral 
philosophy in the lower right by Seneca, rational philosophy above the 
circle by the Church Fathers, Augustine, Gregory, Jerome and Ambrose. 
The Margarita was written by a monk of Freiburg, German^', and pub- 
lished in the last decade of the 15th century. These illustrations are 



l8 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

taken from the Columbia University copy of the 1540 edition. It was 
one of the most widely used text books and contained some of the most 
significant illustrations of medieval learning. 

Slide 113. The Temple of Wisdom— from the Margarita Philosophica. 
This cut represents the entire educational system in allegorical form. The 
muse of wisdom here entitled Nicostrata, the author of a primer in Latin 
grammar, is admitting the youth to the temple, giving him the horn book 
as a key of admission. The first floor is labeled Donat for Donatus, 
Donatus being the elementary Latin grammar in almost universal use. (See 
Cyclopedia for Donatus.) The second floor is represented by Priscian, the 
author of the more advanced Latin grammar. (See Cyclopedia for Pris- 
cian.) The third floor in the left hand alcove, shows Aristotle repre- 
senting logic, and in the centre one, Cicero, representing rhetoric. These 
three subjects constitute the trivium or the secondary school course. And 
on this floor is arithmetic represented by Boethius ; above to the left is (i) 
music; (2) geometry represented by Euclid; and (3) astronomy repre- 
sented by Ptolemy. Above to the left is physical philosophy represented 
by Pythagoras and to the right moral philosophy represented by Seneca. 
The capstone is furnished by theology represented by Peter the Lombard. 

Slide 114. The types of grammar from the Margarita Philosophica. 
This work devotes a book or section to each of the seven liberal arts 
and notes the types of each art with an allegorical representation of the 
various types together with the presiding genius of the art. In the case 
of grammar the elementary Latin grammar is again represented by Nicos- 
trata. The foundation is the alphabet as indicated by the horn book. In 
other v\rords, formal education begins with the study of Latin grammar. 
Latin grammar leads to Greek grammar, that to Hebrew grammar which 
provides an interpretation of the Table of the Laws. The unique sig- 
nificance of grammar to the medievalist is indicated not only by this but by 
the fact that the genius presiding over the art is represented as the Deity 
Himself. 

Slide 115. The types of rhetoric, also from the Margarita Philosophica. 
Here the genius is the Emperor Justinian holding in one hand the symbol 
of the Empire and in the other the table of the laws. On one hand is 
Seneca representing moral philosophy and on the other Aristotle repre- 
senting natural philosophy. Before him, representing the highest type of 
practice, is Tully (Cicero). He is standing before the seat of eloquence 
addressing the senate and the people of Rome. The various phrases, 
"color of words," color of sentences," etc., represent the highly fantastic 
medieval interpretation of literature. 

Slide 116. A woodcut from the Middle Ages bringing together the 
entire quadrivium. This is a companion-piece to No. no, coming from 
about the year 1500. Arithmetic is represented as using the old abacus 
for calculation and is here engaged in the theoretical aspect of the 
work rather than the practical. Geometry throughout the medieval age 
was the practical mathematical science and is here represented as being 
concerned with architecture and building operations. Music was rather the 



EDUCATION DURING THE MIDDLE AGES IQ 

science of harmony than the art of playing an instrument, yet is here 
represented, as so frequently during the middle ages, in its earliest form, 
namely, as Tubal Cain, the blacksmith. Astronomy was what we should 
call astrology; though here it is shown as an artist depicting the heavenly 
bodies from his painter's palette. 

Slide 117. Allegorical representation of the types of arithmetic from 
the Margarita Philosophica. Two types are represented, the old Roman 
notation and the Arabic presided over by Boethius. This is probably 
one of the "additions to known things" contained in the Margarita, 
as Boethius is not supposed to have had a knowledge of the Arabic or 
Hindu notation. See histories of mathematics by Smith or Cajori. 

Slide 118. The types of geometry, from the Margarita Philosophica. 
Here again geometry stands as the practical mathematical art concerned 
with architecture, building and navigation. 

Slide 119. A medieval woodcut symbolizing geometry. Here the 
broad scope of the subject is indicated as including all the natural sciences. 
The symbol represents the deity creating the various living species. This 
illustration comes from Brunetto Latini's Tresor of the 15th century. 

Slide 120. A map from the Margarita Philosophica indicating one 
phase of the multiform geometry. It includes geography as the et3'molog- 
ical significance of the word indicates (or the description of the entire 
universe). This map from the Margarita is significant as it is one of the 
earliest maps giving a presentation of the new American continent. 
Though this edition (1540) of the Margarita was published after the 
Copernican discoveries and though the globe had been circumnavigated, 
there is no indication that the author of the volume accepted any of the 
"additions to known things." 

Slide 121. Type of astronomy from the Margarita Philosophica. As 
indicated under No. 120, there was but one type of astronomy, the old 
Ptolemaic. 

Slide r22. Astrologers on Mount Athos, from a medieval woodcut. 
The major interest in astronomy during the Middle Ages was in deter- 
mining its influence over the course of human events. While this seems to 
us at the present gross superstitution yet it was merely further projection 
of facts accepted as a part of common knowledge, namely, the influence 
of the moon on the tides, heavenly bodies on seasons. A modern attempt 
to determine some influence of weather and climate on conduct is in a 
more scientific way what the astrologers were trying to do. But it is 
impossible to state the point of view of astrologers in terms of modern 
thought. They paralleled the whole physical world with psychical entities 
having control over the physical. So from their point of view it was per- 
fectly rational to attempt to determine and to control this influence of the 
spirit world over the physical. (See any encyclopedia article on astrology 
or the references above to the seven liberal arts.) This illustration comes 
from a Flemish manuscript of the 15th century, of Mandeville's travels. 



20 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Slide 123. Type of music from the Margarita Fhilosnphica. Again 
music is represented as going back to the early Biblical music of Tubal 
Cain with his anvil. On the other hand, the latest type is represented 
by the medieval pipe organ. Music in the liberal arts was used largely 
as an intellectual discipline. That is, it related to the study of harmony 
with little attention to its practical interpretation on instruments. 

Slide 124. A drawing of Albrecht Drurer representing a hermit engaged 
in study in a cloister garden. Here intellectual activities are valued 
wholly for the moral and disciplinary effect they may have upon the 
reader. This represents one of the most isolated forms of intellectual 
education during the Middle Ages. 

Slide 125. A Dutch miniature of St. Thomas Aquinas by Herbert 
Van Eyck. It gives a typical monastic scriptorium of the period just pre- 
ceding the printing of books. Note the elaborate paraphernalia of writing 
and illumination ; also the writing desk at an angle of about 45 degrees — 
the angle agreed upon as best by modern science. For work of monks in 
copying manuscript see almost any account of monasticism. References 
in Syllabus; Text Book, pp. 253-269. 

Slide 126. A representation of a monastic scriptorium found in a 
copy of the Vulgate known as the Codex Amiatinus. This was written 
in Yarrow, England, before the year 716 and no doubt represents the 
type of scriptorium and of the library in one of the most famous English 
schools. The picture represents Ezra reading the law, but what it gives us 
is the equipment of the English monastic scriptorium of the 8th century. 
The armarium or book case shows the development of the library at that 
date. 

Slide 127. A miniature from a French manuscript of the middle of 
the 15th century showing a scholar in his study. This is unusual, at least 
not monastic, as indicated by the combination of sleeping quarters, living 
room with fire, and a study. Note the chest of books, the reading desk, 
writing desks, books and manuscripts. The writer holds a stylus in his 
left hand and a pen in his right. Note the ink horns on the right with 
holes for pen, knives for erasing, etc. 

Slide 128. Thomas Lydgate in his study, from a 15th century manu- 
script now in the British Museum. Lydgate was one of the few English 
monks that contributed to literature. This illustration then typified the 
contributions of monasticism to literature. Lydgate was a poet (i375- 
14&0) whose contributions played a valuable part in the development of 
English literature. He is here represented in his study engaged in writing 
See any history of English literature. 

Slide 129. The title page from a manuscript copy of Lydgate's poems. 
The miniature represents Lydgate and his monastic brethren before the 
King, presenting a copy of Lydgate's work. The illustration when in 
colors is a beautiful piece of medieval illumination and is an illustration 
of another phase of the monastic contributions, namely, to art. as well as 
the copying of manuscripts. No better illustration of these three con- 



EDUCATION DURING THE MIDDLE AGES 21 

tributions combined could be found than in this reproduction. References 
as above. 

Slide 130 represents the writer of the chronicles of Hainault. in 
Flanders, of the 15th century. The various monastic chronicles represent 
every phase of monastic contribution to education. While they are 
written for the peculiar religious purpose and hence are often uncritical 
in their presentation of historical narrative, yet they supplement the 
chronicles written for political purposes and in many respects are just 
as accurate. These political or secular chronicles were also uncritical 
and written from a singularly biased point of view. 

Slide 131. A medieval miniature now in the library at Brussels 
representing St. Gregory instructing a pupil. Its early date is indicated 
by the distinct Roman suggestion of the dyptichs and stylus used by the 
pupil. The dove en the shoulder of the Saint is a symbol of inspiration 
and of the teacher's authority, -often used throughout the Middle Ages to 
indicate a teacher. References as in 125 and others. Text Book, pp. 259-62. 

•Slide 132. A miniature from a manuscript of British origin before 
the time of the Norman Conquest. The monk is reading from a large 
book on a lectern, the boys are robed, tonsured and without books. The 
absence of the ferule, so common in later cuts, is conspicuous. This is an 
early English monastic school for oblates. References to monasticism 
and education as above. 

Slide 133. A woodcut by Johannes Rutlingen of 14QI or 1492, used 
to indicate a school book. It was common to represent the teacher by a 
dove perched on his shoulder. Here the dove (symbol of inspiration) is 
placed on the heads of some of the scholars while the raven (symbol of 
evil) is placed on the heads of others. School boys of the 15th century 
were evidently much as they are now. 

Slide 134. A woodcut of 1407 giving an outer monastic school. It 
represents a monk teaching under the influence of a saint (sitting to the 
left). The lion indicates that the patron saint is either Mark or Jerome. 
In the foreground are two boys being instructed in grammar by a tutor. 
The dress indicates that instructor as well as boys do not belong to the 
monastic order. The monastery did not as a rule provide schools for boys 
not destined for the order ; though there was wide divergence in the prac- 
tice as to time, place and order. The most authoritative discussion of this 
is by Leach in the Cyclopedia, Vol. I, pp. 2-4. See also pamphlets by 
Coulton. For traditional views see various works on monasteries referred 
to in the Syllabus. 

Slide 135. A modern painting by Claus Meyer representing a monastic 
school of the 15th century. In costume and surroundings if not in spirit 
it is medieval. 

Slide 136. A range of carrells, in the cloister of Gloucester Cathedral. 
These carrells or stalls, receiving light and heat from the sun, were the 
places in which the monks did their reading and studying. For this and 
similar illustrations see Murray's Handbook of Western Cathedrals and 
other works on English cathedrals. 



22 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Slide 137. From a manuscript of the 15th century now in the Brussels 
library. It represents on one side a school of mendicant monks with 
one of the pupils receiving a birching. The other side represents the 
various friar officials in conference. 

Slide 138 gives a general view of the monastery at St. Gall, Switzer- 
land, a woodcut of 1595. In this is indicated the existence of these monas- 
tic groups as, independent economic, political, and military units, as 
well as religious. This monastery is isolated and fortified, includes its 
gardens and is surrounded by its extensive agricultural possessions. This 
particular institution was an important centre during the 8th and Qth 
centuries and was an outpost against the Huns. Read in this connection 
Von Sleffel's Ekkehard. 

Slide 139 is a woodcut from a work entitled "Mirror of Human 
Life", 1479. It is given as representing an archdeacon training choir 
boys. Leach holds that the archdeacon seldom if ever gave instruction 
in the school. See his articles in the Cyclopedia on Abbey Schools, Bishops' 
Schools, etc. He interprets the figure as a Doctor, as indicated by his cap, 
instructing in the arts. 

Slide 140 is a photograph of the gild school building at Stratford on 
Avon. This is the school in which Shakespeare was educated. The 
upper floor is yet used as the town grammar school. The lower part, 
formerly the gild hall, is now used as a fire-engine house. The stone 
building to the left was formerly the gild church. 

Slide 141. An illumination of the 14th century from an Italian manu- 
script. It represents journeymen in stone and wood giving an illustration 
of skill in their crafts before the consul of the gilds. In other words, 
it is an examination for entrance into the gild of masters. See various 
works on gilds : e.g., Brentano or Toulmin Smith. 

Slide 142. French engraving by Boss of the 17th century. The master 
workman stands at his desk with his wife; the journeymen are at either 
end of the shop, while the apprentice sits between them. 

Slide 143. A French illumination of the 14th century, representing 
the learned women of that period. The appointments of the scriptorium 
are much the same as those of the monastic scriptorium. This illustration 
is of Christina of Pisa, a French lady (born 1364), noted for her scholarly 
work. In the pamphlet this illustration is erroneously stated to be that 
of a nun. See Wright, W omankind in Western Europe ; Eckstein, Women 
under Monasticism. Other references as in Syllabus. 

Slide 144. Also a French miniature of the early 15th century showing 
Christina of Pisa presenting some of her writings to the Queen of France. 
This in colors is a brilliant piece of medieval illumination. The same 
error as above is made in the title of this slide. It is not of a nun. See 
references as above. 

Slide 145. An illumination of the 15th century from Italian sources, 
showing a religious giving instruction in weaving to a woman. This 
shows something of the education of women and the educational function 



EDUCATION DURING THE MIDDLE AGES 23 

of nuns. The suggestion that the spider gives an example of industry as 
well as a model for weaving is also of interest. See the general refer- 
ences on monasticism. Also Eckstein, Women under Monasticism. 

Slide 146. An engraving of the 17th century representing a meeting 
of the nuns of the Abbey of Port Royal in the Fields. For the educa- 
tional aspect of monasticism see the general references on the subject. 
Text Book, pp. 243-270. 

Slide 147, A map of the nunneries of England at the time of the 
suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII, 1535, 1537. The orders to 
which these chapters belonged are indicated in the left hand corner of 
the slide. At the time of the suppression there were about 1560 women 
religious in England, of whom half belonged to the Benedictines. See 
Gasquet, Henry the 8th and the English Monasteries. 

Slide 148. An illumination from a manuscript of the 9th century, of 
French origin. It represents St. Jerome reading to Paula and Eustachia ; 
in reality it gives costumes and customs of Frankish ladies of the 9th 
century. It indicates one phase of the educational work of the monks 
and of the education of women. In color it is a fine sample of rather 
gorgeous illumination. See Eckstein; also Wright, Womankind of Western 
Europe. 

Slide 149. The begging students of Nuremburg, from a woodcut of 
1669. The life of these students is described in detail in Monroe's 
Thomas Platter and the Educational Renaissance of the Middle Ages. 
The city ordinances of Nuremburg restricted the begging to officially 
appointed students for each school and confined them to their own 
parishes. The figures on the baskets used as receptacles for food are 
the patron saints of the schools. Thus the begging students were iden- 
tified. 

Slide 150. A drawing from an early Italian edition of Dante, showing 
the scheme of the physical universe embodied in the Divine Comedy. 
How the intellectual and the spiritual world parallel the physical is shown 
in The Banquet, esp. Bk. II, Chs. 3-6. See also Text Book, pp. 342-7. 



Descriptive Pamphlet of Stereopticon Views 
in the History of Education 

SET IV. THE UNIVERSITIES 

(Note. This pamphlet gives references to books where descriptive matter relating 
to the slides may be readily found. All references to Monroe's Text Book in the 
History of Education are given as Text Book; to Monroe's Brief Course in the History 
of Education are given as Brief Course; to Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education as Cyclo- 
pedia. Fuller references will be found in A Syllabus of the Course of Study in the 
History of Education by the same author, published by the Macmillan Cornpany, price 
25 cents. Full titles of other works referred to in the pamphlet are given in the 
Syllabus.) 

Slide 151. An Italian atelier from the end of the i6th century. An 
engraving by Bertelli showing the master, journeymen, and apprentices at 
work in the fine arts. The preparatory study in anatomy and drawing is 
indicated, as well as the various stages of design, modeling and chisel work. 

Slide 152. An Italian woodcut of about 1500, representing a surgeon 
operating or dissecting. A master is presiding and lecturing; a "journey- 
man" surgeon, — or possibly a master — is operating while "journeymen" 
look on. The apprentices may not be represented here, as their work 
was yet inferior ; though both degrees may be represented. 

Slide 153. A bas relief from the tomb of Lecco Sinbaldi (1272-1337), 
a professor of law at Bologna. The distinction between journeyman and 
apprentice is not clearly indicated by the cut ; but descriptions of the 
gild organizations of the early universities do indicate these distinctions. 
See references to the university, especially. See also Staley. Gilds of 
Florence. 

Slide 154. An illuminated frontispiece of a 14th century manuscript 
showing Henry of Germany lecturing in theology. The master of arts 
became an apprentice to the Doctor of Theology. So the illustration 
represents the journeyman of the gild (holding the mastership of the 
lower grade) now candidate for the higher mastership, — the doctorate of 
theology. Hence all three stages are represented. See Rashdall and other 
references as above. Text Book, pp. 321-4. 

Slide 155. A woodcut of the i6th century showing a lecturer in the 
university, a young master of arts. Before him are the bachelors 
(entered tentatively for the degree) representing the journeymen. Those 
who have not yet received the bachelorship are in the apprenticeship stage, 
still subject in some part of their work to the journeymen of the bachelor- 
hood. For degrees see Text Book, pp. 321-4- Rashdall, Universities of 
Western Europe; Laurie, Rise and Constitution of Early Universities; 
Mullinger, History of University of Cambridge; Compayre, Abelard and 
the Rise of Universities. Other references in Syllabus. 

Slide 156. Rector and the proctors of the gilds of the University of 
Prague; from an old painting yet in the possession of the authorities of 

24 



THE UNIVERSITIES 25 

Prague University. For the functions of these ofificials and for university 
organizations in general, see references under 157. Text Book, pp. 317-21. 

Slide 157. The seals of the French and English nations at the Uni- 
versity of Paris. Taken from documents of the 14th century. The 
Normandy and Picard nations were the other two at this period. For 
the place of the nations in early university organization, see Rashdall, 
Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages; Compayre, Abelard, and the 
Origin of Universities ; Text Book, pp. 319-20; Brief Course, pp. 141-4. 
See also Lacroix. 

Slide 158. A tablet of 1440, commemorative of the apology made by 
the sergeants for the provost of the City of Paris to the members of the 
University of Paris for violation of the privileges of the latter body. At 
present the tablet is in the ficole des Beaux-Arts, Paris. See University 
privileges. Text Book, pp. 318-20. 

Slide 159. An academic procession at Heidelberg in 1673. Such pro- 
cessions were held on the occasion of the inaugural of a new rector or 
vice-rector (usually each year) and at the funerals of patrons or members 
of the faculty or of the nobility. Such occasions are still among the 
most picturesque of all European academic customs. They are participated 
in by the faculties and the student organizations in the gorgeous medieval 
garments. See descriptions of German student customs. 

Slide 160. A medieval woodcut showing a disputation. The two under 
under the canopies are the proponent of the thesis and his opponent, 
the canopies are the proponent of the thesis and his opponent. They are in- 
dicating the premises of the argument on their thumbs and fingers. In the 
center under the canopy is the determiner who presides, sums up the 
disputation and announces the decision. He has assistants on either side. 
In the foreground are the students who are following the argument and 
perhaps prolonging it. Much of the student acquisition was by attendance 
on these disputations. The various members of the faculties (even in 
medicine) taught by public disputation. The art of disputation was the 
art sought by the student. Therefore he not only observed but partici- 
pated in all of these exercises. When he could perform the final art of 
determining as well as disputing he was ready for graduation. This 
public graduating disputation, in early university days, was called the 
determinance and the party a determiner. At Cambridge, England, he 
was called a "commencer". Hence our commencement. This ceremony 
really marked the acceptance of the candidate as a member of the faculty. 
Hence the diploma which entitled him to teach. In the earlier centuries 
it was required that the candidate receiving the degree remain to teach 
for a period ; hence the commencement. 

Slide 161. A woodcut from Joh. de Cuba's Hortus sanitatis of 1491. 
It represents scholars disputing concerning theses from the text, using 
the actual plants in their interpretation. It is the closest approach we 
have to the direct study of the phenomena of nature. See the references 
to early work of universities, especially in relation to medicine. 



26 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Slide 162. Scholars disputing about animals, a woodcut from de Cuba's 
Hortus sanitatis. A companion-piece to Slide 161. 

Slide 163. A woodcut of 1497 from the Brunschwig Chinirgia. The 
youthful Master of Arts is represented as instructing the yet more youth- 
ful candidates. Or it may represent a bachelor (or journeyman) in- 
structing the apprentices. There is no context to indicate exactly the 
subject of the illustration. This cut is considered of especial value in 
indicating costume ; but it is not certain that the gown of the teacher 
indicates a master. 

Slide 164. A disputation liy members of the faculty, a woodcut from 
the Rcfertorinni by Johannes Bertrachinus di Firmo, published in Lyons 
1548. For references and description see Slide 155, 157, 174. 

Slide 165. A German cut of the 14th century from an edition of 
Cicero. It represents the reception of a doctor by his faculty or gild. 
The Dean of the faculty places a ring on his finger and a cap on his head. 
The candidate kisses or accepts the book. This ceremony succeeded the 
formal public disputation and constituted the candidate a member of the 
faculty 

Slide 166. A woodcut of 1589 showing a disputation at the University 
of Tiibingen. By this time the disputation has become for the most part 
a formal argument or address by the candidate. The faculty judges or 
committee, formerly participating in the argument, are on the left. The 
perfunctory student attendance is indicated by the assembly in the body 
of the hall. See student customs and disputation. Text Book, pp. 321-5. 

Slide 167. Conferring the doctorate at Altdorf. After a successful 
determinance (as in Slide 160), the ceremony of conferring the doctorate 
was held, — the mastership, doctorate, professorship, are practically identi- 
cal in the early period. Altdorf was a small German university (founded 
1622) but renowned for its famous scholars. 

Slide 168. A Dutch copperplate engraving by H. Winter from the 
early 17th century showing the promotion of a doctor at the University' 
of Utrecht. The cap and hood are being conferred before a large assem- 
bly. See references above, and for the importance of Utrecht see encyclo- 
pedia articles. 

Slide 169. A woodcut of 1589 illustrating the banquet given by a 
candidate after his promotion to a doctorate at Tubingen. Such feasts 
formed an essential part of the ceremony and constituted one of the 
greatest items of student expense. See descriptions of student customs, 
especially Rashdall. 

Slide 170. A miniature from a French manuscript of the end of the 
15th century. It shows the professor or doctor addressing an audience. 
The robe, cap, books, lantern, canopy are all interesting accessories of the 
scene. This picture indicates the dignity and the honor of the position 
which was striven for by the whole learned world. , 

Slide 171. An Italian miniature of the i8th century, showing Professor 
Laura ]Maria Catrina Basso (1711-1778) lecturing on philosophy at the 



THE UNIVERSITIKS • 2^ 

University of Bologna. That women studied and taught in the early 
Italian universities, though not in great numbers, is now well known. 
This illustration shows that this freedom, not existing in other countries of 
western Europe, continued into modern times. The illustration came 
from an old Italian magazine. 

Slide 172. A woodcut of 1502 used in an edition of Aristotle repre- 
senting St. Thomas Aquinas as an interpreter of Aristotle. It represents 
the work of the higher faculties in the universities. For the introduction 
of Aristotle into the universities, and the curriculum and work of the 
universities, see Rashdall, Laurie, or Compayre as above. 

Slide 173. A lecture in the faculty of theology in the University of 
Paris, a miniature from a French manuscript of 1519-1528. In colors it 
is a fine specimen of medieval illumination. The proctors and beadles 
are shown, and the methods of expounding the text which the students 
annotate. The disputation by the students is also indicated. See refer- 
ences on method in the medieval universities. Compare Slides 160, 161, 
162, 166, 358. 

Slide 174. A map showing the distribution of universities in Europe 
at the close of the Middle Ages. The number, importance, influence, and 
work of the universities are discussed in any of the numerous works on 
universities, of which Rashdall is the best. See articles in encyclopedias ; 
especially in Cyclopedia of Education, Vol. V, pp. 651-653 ; Text Book, 
pp. 313-28. 

Slide 175. A German woodcut of 1635 indicating the religious im- 
portance of the universities in the Reformation period. Note the stone 
pulpit built in the college walls as is yet frequently seen in the old uni- 
versity buildings. 

Slide 176, from the Academic ou Tableau de la Vie scolaire of 1612. 
It represents a public course of lectures at a time when the "new learning" 
and the problems of the Reformation still gave the universities great 
vitality. 

Slide 177. Amphitheatre of the medical faculty of a Dutch university 
of the 17th century (1612). By this time dissections of the cadaver had 
become possible and a part of the most advanced medical work. The 
engraving comes from de Passe's Tableau de la Vie scolaire. For further 
discussion in general, see references on universities. 

Slide 178. An engraving of 1676 showing the University of Altdorf, 
the college and the botanical garden. Altdorf was one of the influential 
German universities especially noted for its philosophical and scientific 
teachers. See No. 182. The engraving is from Hoffman's Florae Alt- 
dorfinae dcliciae hortenscs. 

Slide 179. Corpus Christi College, Oxford, from Loggan's Oxonia of 
1675. See references and description under 180 and 181. 

Slide 180. Pembroke College, Cambridge, from Loggan's Cantabrigia 
of 1688. The college life is of a semi-monastic character and this is 
revealed in the architecture and arrangement of the buildings. See Rash- 



20 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

dall, Mullinger, or any of the works on Cambridge or its constituent col- 
leges. The chapter in Mullinger on Student Life is best. 

Slide i8i. Photograph of interior of Christ Church Hall, Christ 
Church College, Oxford. In this room, surrounded by the portraits of 
the college worthies of past ages, the student life centers. While it is a 
dining hall, in such halls most of the association of student and tutor, 
fellow and professor had place in years past. Only in recent times have 
general university lectureships been created which give a basis for the 
intellectual life of the student outside of his college hall. See Rashdall 
or any of the works on Oxford or Cambridge or their constituent colleges. 

Slide 182. Interior of College at Altdorf (see Slide 178) in early 18th 
century. Some evidence of the study of natural sciences is given as this, 
in its time, was a center of advanced, chiefly philosophical, thought. The 
juxtaposition of eating and other household activities with study indicates 
the somewhat crude character of the university life in those times. 

Slide 183. The library of the University of Leyden in the i6th century. 
By this time the library had become an important part of the University. 
The books are chained and the method of use by students is indicated. 
The classification of books by subjects is of great interest. Leyden was 
founded in 1575 when the citizens of Leyden, because of their great 
sacrifice in withstanding the siege by the Spaniards, were given the choice 
of exemption from taxation or the founding of a university. For a century 
or more Leyden remained the center of advanced thought and instruction. 
See Slide 177. 

Slide 184. The inner court of a college at the University of Tubingen 
in 1589. This is a i6th century view of the same institution of which a 
contemporary photograph is given in 185. One great diflFerence between 
the German and English universities has been made by the disappearance 
of the college from the German institution. 

Slide 185. The Konig Wilhelmsstift at Tubingen from a contemporary 
photograph. Most of the dormitories — the medieval colleges — have dis- 
appeared from German universities. This is one of the few that remain 
and is used chiefly for theological students. For the medieval college, 
see Rashdall. 

Slide 186. A German woodcut of 1578 representing an initiation or 
hazing by students. Many of these customs were crude and more cruel 
than any in modern times. The "freshman" was called a bijamis or 
beganus, a "yellow-beak" or fledgling — a term of contempt. 

Slides 187, 188, 189, 190, are illustrations of one of the conspicuous 
customs of German students. Nos. 187, 188 are from old prints, Nos. 
189, 190 from photographs. These are all taken from the University of 
Heidelberg. The custom of duelling is a survival of feudal or chivalric 
practices, fostered during modern times by the student organizations, 
the Corps and Verbindungcn. Only students belonging to these organi- 



THE UNIVERSITIES 29 

zations participate as a rule. While the practice is frowned upon, even 
forbidden, by the authorities, it is protected and fostered by public and 
student sentiment on much the same ground that strenuous competitive 
college athletics are with us. The revival of student organization in early 
igth century has done much to perpetuate this practice, though recently 
public sentiment seems to be turning against it. To a large body of 
students the acquisition of scars as a result of the mensuer is more 
important than the acquisition of a degree. See any description of 
German student life, from the humorous one of Mark Twain to the 
most scholarly contemporary account. 

Slide igi. German students of about 1730, representing the types of 
amusements of the German student. These are exercising in the riding 
academy, billiards, the formal procession representing corps activities, (see 
Slides 188-92), playing ball, tennis, dancing, the riding trip through the 
country, and gambling. 

Slide 192. An engraving of 1831 representing student customs at the 
University of Heidelberg. This is a "Fuchsritt" or freshman procession. 
These processions and initiation ceremonies accompanied by feasting and 
revelry were indulged in, often to excess, by the various student corps. 
These have their own houses, accepted restaurants and dormitory places, 
and in many respects are similar to the American college fraternities. 
See general references as above. Also those on student life. 

Slide 193. A woodcut of 1589 showing foot ball as played by the 
students of the University of Tubingen. By the 19th century this type 
of amusement had long disappeared from German student life. 

Slide 194. The career or student prison in Heidelberg University. 
This is one of the cells in the attic of the old university building. One 
of the privileges of a medieval university was jurisdiction over its own 
members. Indeed, civil offences by German university students are yet 
punished by the university, not by the municipal authorities. The career 
experiences is often sought after by the corps student as is the mensuer 
scar. Each student leaves his photograph, as seen on the door, or his auto- 
graph as seen on the walls. See references on university privileges. 

Slide 195. Harvard College buildings erected in 1675, 1699-1720. The 
essential parts of the college plants were these dormitories for student life 
and control. During much of this time actual instruction was given in 
the homes or private rooms of President and tutors. See Prince's, 
History of Harvard University. 

Slide 196. King's College, now Columbia, in 1760. Though founded 
on a much more liberal basis as to both control and curriculum than the 
earlier colonial colleges, the semi-monastic ideals of student life and 
discipline yet prevailed. The essential part of the university plant was 
the dormitory in which the student life was centered and through which 
it could be controlled. See History of Columbia College. 



30 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Slide 197 illustrates the development of American colleges into universi- 
ties, in the University of Pennsylvania. After the Revolution the two rival 
institutions were amalgamated into a university, which however passed 
through a long period of stagnation. In 1802, the university was located 
in the building which had been erected as a presidential mansion when the 
capital was located at Philadelphia. See Wood's History of the University 
of Pennsylvania. 

Slide 198. Plan of the University of Virginia drawn by Thomas 
Jefferson in early 19th century. The University was opened in 1825. This 
plan represents a radical modification of the semi-monastic conception of 
college life held by the colonial colleges. The building facing in the 
main court is for lectures and recitations ; those flanking it are professors' 
houses ; the smaller buildings are for the accommodation of students. 
See Adam's Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia, 

Slide 199. A chart showing the professional distribution of all Har- 
vard College graduates from 1642 to 1905. A full description of this chart 
is given in the Cyclopedia, Vol. 2, pp. 90-94. 

Slide 200. A chart made from the analysis of the distribution of all 
graduates of 39 leading American colleges covering the period from the 
founding to IQ05. This shows the distribution by professions and 
indicates how far the curriculum fits the social needs. For full descrip- 
tion see Cyclopedia, Vol. VI, pp. 90-94. See also Vol. I, pp. 687-689. 



Descriptive Pamphlet of Stereopticon Views 
in the History of Education 

SET V. DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 



History of Education are given as Tc.vt Book; to Monroe's Brief Course in the History 
of Education are given as Brief Course; to Monroe's Cvclopcdia of Education as Cyclo- 
sdia. l-uller references will be found in A Syllabus of the Course of Study in the 



History of Education by the same autlior, published by the Macmillan Company, price 
25 cents. Inill titles of other works referred to in the pamphlet are given in the 
Syllabus.) 

Slide 201. A woodcut of 1490-1500 used as a title page to an early 
printed school book. This is one of the early illustrations, known as an 
"Accipies woodcut" from the motto engraved upon them, assuring the 
student that "thou shalt receive the teachings of a very great teacher." 
In this cut the teacher is St. Thomas Aquinas, but the scene represents a 
typical Latin grammar school of the isth century. The dove on the 
shoulder of the teacher, was earlier used to indicate the inspiration of a 
saint ; later that of a teacher. Note the horn-book on the wall, the books 
used by the pupils, the attitude of exposition, etc. 

Slide 202. A woodcut of the late 15th century (1490-1500) used in 
early school books. It is significant because of the number of pupils 
shown and also because of the usher or assistant teacher. These ushers 
were frequently wandering scholars given a more or less permanent 
position as assistant teacher. The usher is indicated by the bundle of 
birches which he holds in his hand, as does the master. 

Slide 203. A woodcut by Furter of Basel (1499) used in early printed 
books. It indicates the elementary or song and the secondary or Latin 
grammar school. The first is under the cantor, the second under the 
magister. Note the attitude of teaching of each ; also the movable black 
board on the wall. 

Slide 204. A woodcut used in a number of books in the late 15th and 
early i6th centuries. It represents the youthful master of arts teaching a 
grammar school. In the foreground are two youths, one with a horn-book, 
learning his letters, the other with a book. The alphabet represents all 
there is of elementary education. Immediately after mastering the alphabet 
the youth proceeds to the study of Latin grammar. The motto Silentium 
indicates the spirit of the school. Here also are indicated the three stages 
of apprentice, journeyman, and master, as in slides 151-155. 

Slide 205. An Italian engraving of the 15th century showing a gram- 
mar school master with his scholars. At this time the grammar school 
masters were organized into a distinct gild. In the early university 
period, there was a tendency in England and France to recognize these 
gild masters as entitled to a degree, the master of grammar to correspond 
to the master of arts. Examinations were held by the university to 

31 



32 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

determine the qualification of candidates. This tendenc}' did not develop. 
See Rashdall, Universities of Europe. 

Slide 206. Rafael's painting in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, 
entitled The School of Athens. It is opposite the famous painting, The 
Disputa, the theme of which is the glorification of religion as the School 
of Athens is the glorification of knowledge. The central figures in this 
picture are Plato and Aristotle advancing from beneath the lofty cupola 
flanked by the four wings, which constitutes a beautiful example of the 
Renaissance architecture. In the niches are Apollo and Minerva. The 
entire atmosphere is strikingly Renaissance. The philosophers advance 
between companies of the pupils listening reverently. The Seven Liberal 
Arts form the basis of one of these groups. The more advanced arts of 
metaphysics and ethics form the basis of the other. However, it is 
impossible to distinguish these various types in so small a reproduction. 
In a larger reproduction the countenances as well as the entire figure 
depict the character of these typical forms of learning. In the right fore- 
ground is Archimedes, the teacher of geometry. Still farther to the right 
is a group of astronomers of whom Zoroaster and Ptolemy are prominent. 
The figure directly under the arch gazing at the spectator is supposed to 
be that of Rafael himself. The entire painting is a marvellous presenta- 
tion of the spirit and the ideals of the classical revival. For further 
details see any good description of the Vatican paintings or of Rafael's 
works. 

Slide 207. A woodcut of 1518 showing the triumph of the new 
learning. In this case the scholar is John Reuchlin, especially noted for 
his long contest with the Dominican monks in defence of the new learning 
and of the study of Hebrew and Greek. The monks are led before him 
in chains to celebrate his victory. He is met before the gates of his 
native city Pforzheim by officials, scholars and the people in general, who 
scatter flowers before him. Superstition, barbarism, ignorance and preju- 
dice are represented as conquered enemies. The opposition is dragged 
by the heels in the foreground. A monk is being cast out of a window in 
the city wall. See in any account of the Renaissance the story of Reuch- 
lin. 

Slide 208. A woodcut of about 1530 showing the triumphal procession 
of the new learning. The humanist teacher rides in the chariot. Before 
him in chains are the monkish adherents of the old learning. Before 
them is the Ark of the Covenant, containing the scriptures in the original 
now defended by the new learning. Children scatter flowers, and students 
cast their gowns in front of the procession while heralds (the political 
power) welcome the conquering hero from the city walls. 

Slide 209. A painting by Pinturicchio showing Aeneas Sylvius (after- 
wards Pope Pius II) received and crowned by James I of Scotland as a 
poet or great literary character. This indicates the revival of classical 
customs as well as of classical literature. 

Slide 210. An Italian engraving of the i6th century showing the 
position of players in the game "Calcio" a form of football. This is in the 



DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 33 

square before the famous church of Sancte Croce in Florence. The 
introduction of such games was one of the marked characteristics of the 
new education of the Renaissance period. Text Book, pp. 37-\-372 Also 
Woodward's volumes, (See Syllabus). 

Slide 211. An Italian illustration of the 15th century showing foot 
ball as played by the youth of that period. See Vittorino da Feltre and 
references to Slide 210. 

Slide 212. The School of the Hieronymians or the Brethren of the 
Common Life at Utrecht, from an engraving of the late 15th century. 
See Text Book, p. 390. See Cyclopedia and references appended. 

Slide 213. A photograph of the school and church of St. Aegedian at 
Nuremberg. This school was the first of the old monastic schools to be 
reformed under the influence of the new learning (about 1492). Here in 
1526 Melanchthon inaugurated a new program giving as his inaugural 
address one of the notable pronouncements on the new learning. See 
Text Book, pp. 390-392. and general references on Renaissance and educa- 
tion. 

Slide 214. A copper engraving of 1731 showing the school court of 
the St. Anna's gymnasium at Augsburg. In the background is the old 
monastery, formerly the seat of a monastic school, used after the Reforma- 
tion for the gymnasium. When the new building was erected, the old 
monastic one was used for a volksschule or some less important school. 
Such architectural relationship is to be found in almost every German city. 

Slide 215. A copper engraving from the i8th century showing the 
singing of students of a gymnasium in the evening before the doors of 
prominent citizens at Nuremberg. Gifts of food and drink were expected. 
The students are under the supervision of Masters. This is a survival 
of the customs of the begging students of the Middle Ages. 

See Text Book, pp. 334-7 ; also Monroe's Thomas Platter— entire trans- 
lation. Such survivals are yet to be found in many places. 

Slide 216. Jesuit College at Freiburg, Germany, in 1798. Here the 
component parts of the school plant are indicated : the church, the dormi- 
tories, the lecture rooms, the cloister, the garden and the "tihing yard" 
or place for exercise. This illustration then reveals the scope of their 
conception of education. Text Book, pp. 420-430. See also Swickerath 
or Hughes. 

Slide 217. The Jesuit college of Hieronymus at Dillingen, Austria, 
from an old print. Note the forms of physical exercise provided for. 
The extensive buildings are required since much of the value of the 
training comes through the dormitory life. Text Book, pp. 420-433. See 
Hughes or Swickerath. 

Slide 218. Map showing the location of the Jesuit schools in the 
German states. At the opening of the i8th century, when the order was 
at the height of its prosperity and influence, its colleges numbered 769 
besides the 172 missions in non-European countries. This map is taken 
from the Monumenta Germaniae Pedagogica. References as above. 



34 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Slide 219. Plan of a Jesuit school room. This diagram is a rare find 
from a drawing by John Dury of about 1645. The description of method 
accompanying the diagram is as follows : 

At A is the Doore, B the Regent's pulpit, C the seats of the two 
Censors, E the Chaire of the Emperor of the West, D of the East, 0000 
the Senators on each hand of the Emperors, xxxx the Equites, whereof 
hee next the Emperor is called Primus Comitum. The low benches 
hee next the Emperor is called Prium Comitum. The low benches 
marked with Arithmetical figures are called Decuriae, the chief whereof 
is called Decurio. 

The Schollars of each Classis are commonly so many that the Regents 
especially at the first hand of the yeare scarce knowing them, cannot 
themselves take due notice of them all, wherefore the Emperor takes 
notice of the Senators in respect of their absence, prating in the Schoole. 
et cetera, and taketh every one of their exercises, which having filed 
together hee send to the Censor, together with a bill of the absence, mis- 
deameanours, default of bringing exercise of every one of his senators. 
The same doth the Princeps Equitum for the Equites, the Primus Comitum 
for the Comites, and each Decurio for those of his Decuria. The Censor 
transcribeth all these bills, and having put all into one, giveth it to the 
Regent. The same doe the Censors and other Officers of the other side. 

As soone as the Regent entreth the schoole, they all fall on their 
knees, and the Reader of the Classis (which is one of the Schollars) 
sayeth a short prayer that God would blesses the studies, and give them 
grace to employ the profit of them to his glory : which having done, the 
Regent either opening his pulpit or walking into the Alley, biddeth any 
whom hee most suspecteth of negligence to render his lesson • as suppose 
the first Decurio of the East. The said Decurio of the East, and also hee 
of the West both rise together : hee of the East sayeth the lesson, hee of 
the West correcteth him where he misseth, and then the Decurio of the 
West sayeth also, and is corrected in like manner by his fellow opposite 
of the East. The Regent spendeth neere halfe an houre in this business, 
which having done, hee giveth another lesson out of the same author, in 
the lower Classes construing the author into the vernacular tongue, which 
the schollars write betweene the lines left wide asunder for that purpose; 
and in the higher Classes the Greeke into Latine. They write also such 
glosses, comments, analyses, and other explications in their Margents as 
the Regent dictates, according to the capacity of his respective Classis. 
(This description is given in full because not generally accessible.) 

Slide 220. Portrait of Father Christoph Scheiner of the Jesuit Col- 
lege, Freiburg, Germany, who claims the honor of discovering "sun spots". 
The illustration is given as an evidence of the scientific work of the 
Jesuits and that they did not eliminate all scientific study from the 
interest of their members. 

Slide 221. A German woodcut of the i6th century showing the 
teaching of the future Emperor Maximilian I. The presence of the other 



DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 35 

youths indicates one of the Fiirstcnschulcn, "schools for nobles." See 
Text Book, pp. 388-9. 

Slide 222. The Furstcnschiilc at Meissen in the i6th century, from 
an old print. To the right are the royal castle and the cathedral. In the 
centre background is a collegiate or parish church with the school on the 
left. Meissen with Pforta and Grimma were the schools founded by 
Saxon State in the first half of the i6th century for the benefit of church 
and state. They were semi-monastic in character but designed chiefly 
for sons of the gentry. In recent times this school has become one of the 
leading agricultural schools of Germany. Text Book, pp. 389, 497-99. 
See Russell, German Higher Schools. 

Slide 223. A copper engraving of 1610 showing the interior of a riding 
school at Leyden, Holland. This constituted part of the training of the 
young gentry and was incorporated in their training in all countries. 
To obtain such training was part of the aim of the "grand tour" of 
English youth. Text Book, pp. 388-9. See also references, p. 47 and 48 
of Monroe's Syllabus. Also under Travel. 

Slide 224. Frontispiece and title page of a Latin grammar very 
generally used in England. The tree of knowledge is a familiar emblem 
to the school boys with its legend that "the fruits are sweet though the 
roots are bitter." Compare with the illustration of Latin grammar in 
Slide 114 in Set III. Slides 350-376 all relate to this topic. 

Slide 225. Title page of a Dutch text book of the middle 17th century 
showing a mathematical or realistic school. Groups of students are in- 
dicated at work in writing, in arithmetic and in the higher branches of 
mathematics. 

Slide 226. This is the oldest extant drawing of Winchester College, 
which was founded in 1382. the picture itself coming from the middle of 
the following century. This is the earliest of the nine great public schools 
of England, and while similar to many Latin grammar schools founded 
before became a type of the more modern foundations. The building 
itself, as well as the figures in the foreground, indicates the relationship 
with the old monastic organizations and the ecclesiastical conception of 
the school. On the other hand the middle foreground is a tilting yard 
where the students are engaged in chivalric exercises, showing the incor- 
poration of these into the ideals of education. The foundation provided 
as follows : for a warden and 10 fellows, the fellows indicated to the left 
with the warden in the center. These are in memory of the eleven faith- 
ful apostles. Then there was a foundation for Masters and ushers, the 
total number representing the six faithful deacons. The 70 scholars in 
the right and left foreground represent the disciples that were sent 
out to preach. In the centre foreground are seen the 16 poor boys 
who act as choristers and constitute the singing school. These repre- 
sent the major and the minor prophets. Thus the ecclesiastical, philan- 
thropic, and educational aspects of the foundation are indicated. All 
three were usually incorporated in ecclesiastical foundations, but the thing 



36 STEREOPTICON' VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

which makes this foundation significant is the dominance of educational 
interests. That makes it a school. See especially Leach's volume on 
Winchester; or his article in the Cyclopedia. 

Slide 227. The great schoolroom at Winchester, from one of the 
Ackerman prints of the early 19th century. These are among the most 
famous of the early prints and in colors reproduce vividly the beauty of 
the original. The entire scholastic work of these English public schools 
was carried on in one great schoolroom of which this is a reproduction. 
The school is divided into forms, usually six, indicated by the rows of 
boxes or benches as we would call them. The school is controlled by the 
older or the sixth form boys. For further details of this and the fol- 
lowing pictures, see Leach on IVinchcstcr or any of the works on English 
public schools. Corbin's volume gives a good picture of present day life. 
See the articles in the Cyclopedia on the various English Public Schools ; 
Text Book, pp. 393-3Q5- 

Slide 228. Photograph of Eton College, the second of the nine great 
public schools of England, founded by King Henry VI in 1440. Eton is 
on the bank of the Thames directly opposite Windsor Castle. It has been 
the school for the nobility under a special royal patronage. See Lyte, 
History of Eton College, and also Cust, History of Eton College; other 
reference.'' as above. 

Slide 229. The great schoolroom of Eton, from the Ackerman prints 
of the early 19th century. This in colors again reproduces the atmosphere 
of these schools. The schools are now broken up and the work no longer 
confined to the one great room. The names of former students seen on 
the walls indicate one form of expression of individuality and also 
one of the means by which the school atmosphere is created. See refer- 
ences as above. 

Slide 230. The lower schoolroom of Eton College. This is of par- 
ticular significance because the wood from which these benches were 
made as well as the wainscoting and timbers of the room was taken from 
the wrecked vessels of the Spanish Armada. This again indicates one of 
the means by which patriotic ideals are instilled into the English boys 
through these great schools. 

Slide 231 is but another evidence of this atmosphere of the past in 
which the school boy lived. This is a top of a desk from one of the forms 
of the Eton school showing how generations of school boys have carved 
their names. Thus the ideals of many generations cause the social pres- 
sure which develops as a product of the great public schools a type of boy 
which is quite distinct. References as above. 

Slide 232. The great schoolroom of Westminster, also from the Acker- 
man prints. The Westminster school formerly adjoining Westminster 
Abbey was established, as the illustration indicates, in the buildings of the 
old monastery. Here in the apse of this room the highest form of the 



DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 7)7 

school is seen in recitation. It is to be noted that the recitation in these 
schools is all individual or at least in pairs, as it was in the Jesuit schools. 
For details see references as above. 

Slide 233 is the dormitory of the Westminster school, also from the 
Ackerman prints. These are the most famous prints of the late i8th and 
the early 19th centuries and the slides in colors give beautiful repro- 
ductions of them. This dormitory again is one of the old monastic build- 
ings slightly modified for school purposes. The Westminster school has 
now been removed into the suburbs of London. It originated with the 
suppression of the monasteries about 1540, was refounded by Elizabeth 
in 1560, and is one of the nine great public schools. See references as 
above, and the edition of R. Airy, Westminster, and W. T. Shore, West- 
minster. 

Slide 234 represents the costume of the Westminster school boy. Each 
of these schools had a distinct costume, the wearing of which was another 
means for holding the boy to the ideals of the school. 

Slide 235. The great schoolroom of Harrow. Harrow is the middle 
class school of the nine great public ones. It is in the suburbs of London, 
in the opposite direction from Eton. This illustration in the early 19th 
century is one of the Ackerman prints. The writing of the names on the 
walls of the schoolroom is again indicated here. In most of these schools 
at present this expression of individuality is no longer permitted ; but 
the custom is thoroughly systematized and the names are engraved by an 
official engraver. One of the most recent volumes on Harrow is that by 
J. F. Williams. Other references as above. 

Slide 236. One of the customs at Harrow which shows the survival of 
the old medieval and chivalric element, that of shooting the bow and 
arrow for the prize of the silver arrow. This illustration is an old 
drawing of this custom, which is still perpetuated though it has long since 
lost its early significance. See references as above. 

Slide 237 is a print of the London Grammar School of the I7th century. 
It pictures the obeisance done by the representatives of the school before 
the youthful King Edward VI, who refounded so many of these schools 
that he is given the title "Founder of Schools". See Leach, English Schools 
at the Period of the Reformation. Here the presence of others than 
scholars indicates the fact that these institutions were charitable as well 
as educational. References as above. 

Slide 238. The dining hall of one of the largest of these great public 
schools. This was formerly located in the very heart of London on 
Cheapside but has now been removed. The original buildings were those 
of the Cistercian monastery founded by Dick Whittington of cat fame. 
It was a day school and hence attended by several hundred boys. Their 
garb vv^as a blue coat as is indicated by this illustration in colors, and 
until recently these boys were one of the most conspicuous features 
of London. The school is Christ Church Hospital. 



38 STERKOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Slide 239. The official seal of one of the Latin grammar schools, that 
of Louth. The school was founded or refounded in 1552 under Edward 
VL In "the common seal of the free grammar school of Edward VI 
in the Town of Louth" the motto is "Who spares the rod spoils the child". 
The date is 1552. There probably is no better illustration of the disciplinary- 
conception of schools than this illustration worked into the official seal of 
a school. That the spirit of the school was such as indicated by the 
official seal and that they still preserved their great affection for the child 
is told by the poet Tennyson who attended this school. His son, in 
writing the Memoirs of his father, indicated that the chief permanent 
impressions which the poet had received from the school were those of 
the kind indicated by the official seal. 

Slide 240. This is the whipping block of one of these public schools. 
Discipline was severe and punishment frequently administered, usually 
by the sixth form boys. In this particular case the boy put his arms over 
the table and his head under the table top, while the older boys educated 
him. At Eton the whipping block was a block of three steps upon which 
the victim knelt. 

Slide 241 is the great schoolroom at Rugby during Tom Brown's day. 
This in color is a reproduction of the Ackerman print. Hughes' Tom 
Brown at Rugby is a classic reference on the value of this school. The 
more recent work is that of Rouse. Other references as above. 

Slide 242. Portrait of John Amos Comenius from the 17th century 
edition of his Janua Linguarum. Comenius was the great reformer of 
secondary schools during the 17th century and a writer of numerous 
series of revolutionary texts. The whole story of improvement in 
method can be centered around the portrait of Comenius and the illus- 
trations from his works which are given in Slides No. .36.4-375. Text 
Book, pp. 480-496; Brief Course, pp. 238-248. See Laurie on Comenius, 
and references in Syllabus, pp. 51-52. 

Slide 243. The Fellenberg Institute. Between these two slides there 
had intervened a gap of 150 years to be filled in by the materials fur- 
nished in the last set of slides, on method. The Fellenberg Institute 
represents the application of the Pestalozzi-Rousseau ideas to secondary 
education and is the most outstanding attempt of this kind. Fellenberg 
was a follower of Pestalozzi and founded his Institute at Hofwyl, (near 
Berne) Switzerland, in 1809. The school continued to thrive until 1844, 
and was pronounced by Henrj- Barnard to be the most influential school 
ever in existence. The plan of it was very similar to that of Hampton 
and Tuskegee at the present time. Slide 243 gives a diagram of the 
institution, various schools being indicated on the slide. 

Slide 244. Fellenberg Institute at work indicates the very great em- 
phasis upon physical education just then being reintroduced into our 
educational activities. The large building is the academic institute, now 
used as one of the state normal schools of Switzerland. 



DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 39 

Slide 245 gives the agricultural school of the Fellenberg Institute. 
These illustrations are copper plates from a contemporary French de- 
scription of the school. The best English descriptions of this school are 
found in the files of the Annals of Education, a contemporary American 
publication of the third decade of the 19th century. 

Slide 246. The earliest extant illustration of the secondary school in 
America. This is the Boston Latin Grammar School founded in 1635. 
The illustration comes from an old pictorial map of Boston made about 
1748, just before this school building was torn down. The building itself 
was erected in the latter part of the 17th century. In this Ezekiel 
Cheever. the most famous of colonial school masters, taught during the 
latter years of his life. For the work of the Latin grammar school in 
America, see Brown, The Making of Our Middle Schools. 

Slide 247 represents the second step in the development of secondary 
education in America. It is the picture of the academy and charitable 
school of Philadelphia founded by Benjamin Franklin about the middle 
of the i8th century. It is the first institution in America, so far as present 
records show, to bear the title of academy. The large building was 
erected under Franklin's influence to provide a place for the preaching 
of Whitefield. After the passing of the great Awakening, it was made 
into a charitable school of elementary grade. When Franklin's school 
was founded this building was turned over to him and the school opened 
in 1749. Later on it developed into the University of Pennsylvania, 
though the academy was continued as a constituent part. See Brown, 
as above. 

Slide 248 represents the next step in the development of secondary 
education, namely, the change of the academy to the free academy. The 
free academy was still controlled by a private board of trustees, but 
usually received some public funds in consequence of which the school 
was made free to students within the local area contributing by taxation. 
This is the Free Academy of Norwich, Connecticut, one of the earliest of 
these. See Brown, as above. 

Slide 259 is a cut of the f^rst public high school, that in Boston, 
founded in 1821 as the English Classical School. This was the counter- 
part of the Latin grammar school. The term high school was not applied 
to it for several years later. On the basis of this as a model from 1827 
on Massachusetts developed a system of high schools. See Brown, as 
above, and Inglis, The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts. 

Slide 250 is a photograph of one of the new high schools in New 
York City, one of the most elaborate and beautiful of the architectural 
embodiments of the high school idea. Almost any community can oflfer 
a satisfactory substitute for this in a discussion of the modern high school. 
This one, however, gives an excellent illustration of the extent to which 
the high 'school idea as an institution of democratic education has gone. 
The modern high school was not introduced into New York until 1897 



40 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

although in the early part of the century there were high schools of the 
earlier type. The secondary education of the city was cared for from 
the middle of the century to the close of the century by institutions of 
the type indicated in slide 248. This institution was first called the free 
academy and later the city college. For all of this development, see 
references as above, especially Brown. 



Descriptive Pamphlet of Stereopticon Views 
in the History of Education 

SET VI. DEVELOPMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 

(Note. This paniplilet gives references to books where descriptive matter relating 
to the slides may be readily found. All references to Monroe's Text Book in the 
History of Education are given as Text Book; to Monroe's Brief Course in the History 
of Education are given as Brief Course ; to Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education as Cyclo- 
pedia. Fuller references will be found in A SyHahits of the Course of Study in the 
History of Education by the same author, published by the Macniillan Company, price 
25 cents. Full titles of other works referred to in the pamphlet, are given in the 
Syllabus.) 

Slide 251. A schoolmaster's signboard, painted by Albert Drurer in 
15 16. The teacher of the elementary school, dame or master, or both as 
in this case, followed teaching as any other vocation or craft. Such 
teachers frequently organized into a gild of masters with journeymen or 
ushers, the assistant teachers. If not supervised by a gild organization, 
such teachers were often controlled by the church. When teaching was 
carried on merely as a vocation, a signboard, as in the illustration, was 
hung out to display wares as in any other shop. When most people were 
illiterate such signs had to be pictorial. Hence with the school we have 
the book and the birch, the two tools of learning. This signboard is pre- 
served because painted by a famous artist. See the Cyclopedia article on 
Abcdarian and Song Schools. 

Slide 252. A German schoolmaster's signboard from 1592. Signifi- 
cance as in 251. Frequently these signboards were written, giving 
a sample of the master's .skill in writing. This one reads "Whoever 
wishes to learn reading, writing, likewise reckoning to the rule of three, 
and to speak Italian should inquire within. ChristofF Rechwald, German 
schoolmaster". The reference to speaking Italian is explained by the 
fact that the sign comes from Regensburg, one of the South German 
commercial cities, where contact with the Italians was close. See refer- 
ences above. 

Slide 253. A woodcut of the i6th century showing a writing and 
arithmetic (or reckoning) school. This is a private school as is shown 
by the parent negotiating with the teacher. For the most part these were 
outside the system of schools established in Teutonic countries by the 
states and supervised by the church. In time they were amalgamated 
with them, but for long were controlled by gilds of masters. Only in the 
i8th century in most countries even in American colonies were writing 
and reckoning added to the work of the typical elementary school. 

Slide 254. After the Reformation the German states elaborated codes 
of regulations or laws for their schools, incorporated in their church 
legislation or codes. The earliest of these which established a system of 
schools for an entire state was that of Saxony in 1528, drawn up by 

41 



42 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Melanchthon and supervised by Luther. However this provided for a 
system of Latin schools only. In 1559 Wurtemburg adopted a system 
including elementary schools in every village. In 1580 the revised Saxon 
ordinances made a similar provision. The slide shows the title page of 
the two Saxon Ordnungen. 

Text Book, pp. 433-7. Cyclopedia, article on Kirchenordnungen. Also 
Barnard's German Teachers and Educators; and Robbin's Teachers in 
Germany in the i6th Century. 

Slide 255. The table of contents from the Wurtemburg Ordnungen of 
1559. After the confession of faith, ordinances for pastors, deacons, for 
marriages, etc., the regulations for schools follow. These are most elabo- 
rate, providing for a Particular or Latin school, for a Pedagogium or 
training school for pastors at Tiibingen and at Stuttgart, for schools for 
the gentry (see Slides 221-2) at the same centers; and for elementary or 
vernacular (Deutsch) schools in every village. 

References as above. 

Slide 256. A woodcut from the i6th century showing religious in- 
struction in the family. Upon this was based the necessity for school 
instruction in reading that all might read the scriptures and the catechism. 

Text Book, pp. 433-9. Also Luther's Letters, either in Painter or in 
Barnard's German Educators. Slide 363 is a companion piece to this. 

Slide 257. A German woodcut of 1592 showing the interior of a 
school. The three classes are in reading, (foreground) writing, (left 
background) and singing (right background). Note the use of the black 
board. These subjects correspond to the work as outlined by the school 
ordinances of that period. 

See Robbins, Teachers in Germany in the Sixteenth Century. Other 
references as above. 

Slide 258. A recent photograph of St. Jacob's Church and School at 
Rothenburg on the Tauber. Rothenburg is the one German city preserved 
just as it was in the i6th century. Then the chapter house opposite the 
church contained the chapter, song, and Latin school. In subsequent 
times the elementary and the Latin school were so accommodated. How- 
ever these are now supplemented by other schools. This juxtaposition of 
church and school yet survives in many continental cities and may be taken 
as a type. The Rothenburg schools were among the earliest reformed at 
the Reformation period. See Robbins. 

Slide 259. A German woodcut from a work published in Munich in 
1788, showing the exhibition in the pastor's home for the presentation of 
gifts to school children. While the schools in the German states were 
controlled by the government, the influence of the church was, and still 
is, very strong. Especially in the villages and country places the pastors 
were the dominant characters on the school boards. 

See references above; also Barnard, German Teachers; Paulsen, and 
Robbins. 



DEVELOPMKNT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 43 

Slide 260. A German drawing from the early i8th century showing 
the schoolmaster as tailor. The teaching profession had not yet been 
elevated to the position of state officialdom. The teacher of the elemen- 
tary school was usually engaged in some other occupation, as shoemaker, 
tailor, farmer, with teaching as an avocation. Frequently he was a 
crippled soldier and one of the Prussian monarchs by law gave preference 
to these. In the illustration he is shown as tailor without time, even, to 
take the admonitions of the village pastor representing the school author- 
ities. Consequently the wife receives the admonitions. Note the esel as a 
substitute for the dunce stool ; also, at the left front, the boy kneeling on a 
triangular block of wood while he learns the alphabet from a hornbook. 
Note also the evidence of domestic economy in the school room, as 
elementary schools were usually held in the home of the school master. 

References as above and in Syllabus; especially Robbins and Fischer. 

Slide 261. A companion-piece to the above, from same source and date. 
l£ere the school master is a peasant farmer and the school boys are put 
to various occupations on the farm. This is the "Squeers method" of 
education, a century and a half before Dickens. 

References as above. 

Slide 262. Folding plates from the Saxony school ordinance of 1685. 
This shows a form of the continuous school record, of which there are 
several in this volume. They provide for a continuous record of the pupil 
throughout his school years, his occupation afterwards, the home condi- 
tions, his relation to the church, his health, his parents' occupation, etc. 
In short here are found many of the things called for in very recent 
r'='form movements in American school administration. 

See any above references on history of German schools. 

Slide 263. A Dutch school of 1676, from a painting by Ostade. This 
i-> somewhat idealized, but one gets the essential features of individual 
instruction and the prominence of corporal punishment. The usual form 
of punishment in the Dutch school was by the plaque, a round flat piece of 
hard wood with a handle. When holes were bored in this plaque blisters 
would be raised on its application, thus making the punishment more 
effective. 

Slide 264. A Dutch school of the 17th century, from a woodcut of 
that period. Note the presence of the mother as well as the father of the 
children in the schools. This indicates very much greater freedom in the 
Dutch schools than in other continental schools. Division into grades is 
indicated — grades by groups, though no doubt the instruction is still in- 
dividual. Note also the presence on the far side of the room of a group 
c f girls seated with their faces to the wall. 

Slide 265. A Dutch school of the 17th century somewhat later than 
the preceding slide. Note the development shown by the larger group — 
the fact that they are all facing the teacher showing advance in the 
treatment of girls. In this inclusion of girls in the elementary school 



44 STEREOPTICON VTKWS IN THF. HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Holland at that period was evidently much ahead of the German insti- 
tutions or of England. The use of punishment as a means of instruction 
is again indicated. It is suggested from the fact that the boy holds his 
book that he is in the midst of a recitation and is being punished for errors 
made rather than for misbehavior. Note the presence of the dog and 
of the dog kennel. In some of the old Dutch accounts of schools the use 
of the dog to assist in keeping order among the children is indicated. 
This probably was not common but is in accord with the use of the dog 
for various purposes. 

Slide 266 shows the equipment of the early Dutch schools — the mas- 
ter's desk and chair; the bundle of birches; the dunce's esel, in this case 
drawn on a small card or board to be hung on the neck of the children, 
the dove of authority, which in the early years indicated the inspiration 
of the teacher, now probably converted into a whistle as an instrument 
of the audible expression of authority; also the comb, the use of which 
is clearly indicated in the early school regulations drawn up by school 
masters or school authorities. 

Slide 267. The coat of arms of the Dutch school master. It might 
well be taken as the coat of arms of the entire profession, as is indicated 
when the Dutch school used both the bundle of birches and the plaque. 
The single birch evidently is a concession to modern effeminacy. 

Slide 268. A copperplate engraving of 1678 by De Bosse, showing the 
school for boys of the better class and of an advanced grade. Here the 
use of mathematics and of a rudimentary natural science is indicated. 

Slide 269. A copperplate engraving of Dutch source, of 1700, a 
companion-piece to Slide 268. It represents a Dutch school of the better 
grade. Here both industrial or hand work and intellectual instruction 
are given. For references there is little in English that will give the 
historic details of the Dutch schools. Probably the fullest details are 
given in the earlier chapters of Kilpatrick's The Dutch Schools of New 
Netherlands and Colonial Nczv York. This reference will cover slides 
263-269. 

Slide 270. A French engraving of the early i8th century, showing the 
ordinary village or elementary school. This indicates a school of some- 
what higher grade than those of Dutch and German origin, possibly some- 
what ideali;?;ed. The schoolmaster evidently is teaching in a room in his 
own house. Note also that instruction is individual and not class. The 
common feature of corporal punishment is also indicated. 

Slide 271 gives a general view of the facade of the orphan house at 
Eukhuyzen, Holland, together with an enlarged view of the stone engrav- 
ing over the doorway. Much of the development in elementary education 
especially in the attempt to connect the school work more directly with 
social and individual needs came through education of orphans and of 
dependents. This school which is here photographed as it now stands was 
an outstanding example of this type of work. The illustration is also of 



DEVELOPMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 45 

value in showing that both boys and girls were taught in the same elemen- 
tary school in Holland. Besides the references given above, an early 19th 
century account of the Dutch schools, especially of those dealing with 
orphans, is found in Bach, Report on Education in Europe, printed in 1839. 

Slide 272. This type of education found its finest embodiment in 
Francke's educational institution for orphans at Halle in Saxony. This 
was founded in the last decade of the 17th century and developed during 
the i8th. Out of this grew the first real schools at Germany, giving 
Halle a pre-eminence which it yet holds as an educational experimental 
station. The Franckische Stiftung yet remains a very virile institution 
contributing to educational advance. Text Book, pp. 497-498; Barnard's 
German Teachers, and other references to German education in the 
Syllabus. 

Slide 273. Regulations of schoolmasters in the canons of the English 
Church, formulated in 1604 at the opening of the reign of King James. 
The English parliament did nothing concerning general education so far 
as this was to be given through schools until well into the 19th century. 
Such action of parliament or of a monarch as was taken related to 
universities and secondary schools. As on the continent, the church really 
legislated concerning elementary education. The successive ecclesiastical 
actions related almost wholly to the licensing of teachers, that is, con- 
cerned the right to teach. This power was retained by ecclesiastical action 
in the hands of the Bishops, their ordinary or other official. The slide gives 
the statement of this ordinance made in 1604. The earlier ones are very 
much briefer but to the same intent. The right to teach was a monopoly 
of the established church and according to this law no one had the right 
to teach even in his own house unless a member of the orthodox church. 
The extent to which this was modified by judicial decision is traced in 
de Montmorency's State Intervention and English Education. See also 
Cyclopedia article Church Schools, and the references under Reformation 
and Education. 

Slide 274. This condition of indiliference upon the part of the State 
and of orthodoxy upon the part of the Church regarding education was 
modified during the i8th century by the development of a system of 
charity schools growing out of the organization of the Society for the 
Propagation of Christian Knowledge. This movement was somewhat 
similar to the pietistic movement led by Francke in Germany but was more 
far-reaching, since there was no system of state schools in England. This 
slide gives a picture of the children of these London charity schools in 
the year 1713 as they were massed in stands on the Strand to observe 
Queen Anne as she went in procession to St. Paul's to celebrate the sign- 
ng of the Treaty of Utrecht. 

Slide 275. This is a pictorial illustration of one of these English 
harity schools in the Bunyan meeting house, London. In other words 
hese schools were established and supported bj' non-conformists as well 
as by the Church of England. 



46 STKREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Slide 276. A page from the account of the charity school system in 
the year 1715. This together with the following slides is from the 
manuscript records of these societies now kept in London chiefly in Sion 
College. For this entire work see Kemp, The Support of Schools in 
Colonial New York by the Society for the Propagation of thf Gospel irt 
Foreign Parts. 

Slide 277. An illustration from the same source giving a full tabulated 
account of these charity schools of England. This is for 1718. 

Slide 278 is a report from the same source, of about the same period, 
showing the record which was kept of the work of these students and of 
their transfer through the apprenticeship system into some type of 
vocational employment. In other words these schools provided for 
vocational guidance, for industrial training and for the actual placing of 
the children in vocational position. All of this corresponds (in quite a 
crude form) to the industrial system of the times. 

Slide 279. Photograph from these early i8th century records showing 
the provision made for the care of both boys and girls, and the fact that 
they were clothed and fed and as a rule given uniform clothing. See 
Kemp as above; also Bach, Report on Education in Europe, 1839, which 
shows the condition of this education in the early 19th century. See also 
Mandeville, Essay on Charity Schools. 

Slide 280. With the development of the industrial system in the late 
1 8th and early 19th century, this church charity school failed to reach the 
problem of the neglected city children. Consequently there grew up in 
England as well as in United States a variety of philanthropic forms of 
education. One of the earliest and most striking of these was the ragged 
school movement. This illustration comes from an early 19th century 
magazine, giving the founder of the ragged schools, John Pounds, teaching 
in his shop. See Text Book, ch. 13, especially pp. 272-274. 

Slide 281. A typical elementary school in England and in most of the 
American colonies was the Dame School. This is evidenced in many 
ways though there are few direct records bearing upon it. This illus- 
tration is a painting by the English artist Webster giving an English 
dame school. See also the description in Crabb, The Village. 

Slide 282. A London dame school of 1869. This is a drawing made 
about the time of the Parliamentary Commission appointed to make a 
survey of English education preliminary to the law which was passed in 
1871. It was reported that this school was above the average of the dame 
schools of London, for though it was kept in a basement the old dame had 
a sleeping apartment aside from the living room in which the school was 
kept. This dame had kept the school in this room for over forty years, 
having taught parents of many of the children shown in the drawing. 

Slide 283. This and slides 284-288 trace the elementary curriculum. 
The dame school devoted all of its attention to the learning of the alpha- 
bet, the memorizing of the catechism. The horn-book furnished the 



DEVELOPMKNT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 47 

means for learning the alphabet. It consisted of a small board upon which 
was tacked a piece of paper containing the alphabet, the simple syllabic 
forms, possibly the Lord's Prayer, and the exorcism. That there was no 
royal road to learning is shown by this illustration, which gives the horn- 
book used by Queen Elizabeth. A few of these horn-books are yet extant, 
though they are very rare. The authoritative work on the horn-book is 
Tuer's History of the Horn-Book. 

Slide 284. In England the horn-book was followed by the catechism 
or some simple religious primer. This slide gives the title page of the 
most popular of these, issued about the middle of the 17th century and 
used throughout the remainder of this and the following century. The 
spirit of these texts is well indicated by the statement of the title page. 
The best available account of these and similar works is found in Ford's 
New England Primer. 

Slide 285. A full page illustration taken from the Protestant School 
Master, a book similar to the Protestant Tutor. The character of the 
content of the work can be judged from these illustrations. Some of them 
are of such a revolting nature that it would hardly do to reproduce them 
at the present time. 

Slide 286 is a double page of the text from the same Protestant School 
Master. The spirit, purpose and result of this religious education can be 
judged fairly well from the content of this book. See Ford's New England 
Primer, as above. 

Slide 287. List of books used in the charity schools. This comes from 
the same source and period as slides 274-279 and gives the list of books 
which it was permissible to use in their schools. Most of these were 
furnished by this same Society. Many of them were used in America as 
well as in England. The list indicates the extent to which the whole con- 
ception of elementary education was dominated by the Church. See 
Kemp, as above. 

Slide 288 gives a double page from Coote's English School Master. 
This was published early in the 17th century, just when is not known. 
It had passed through 42 editions by 1684 and was one of the most 
extensively used school books of this period. Much of the material is 
religious, though there are many excellent suggestions as to method. Both 
method and spirit are indicated by the materials on the page as given in 
the slide. The work itself contains some instruction in arithmetic or 
reckoning as well as in spelling, reading, and grammar. 

Slide 289. A French fashion plate of the first half of the iRth century. 
This is given to show the conception of childhood and the spirit con- 
trolling child life during this century. The artificiality of all this is 
indicated by the dress shown in this fashion plate. That the child was 
thought of simply as a miniature adult is also indicated in the dress both 
of boy and girl. In their intellectual growth no less than in their 



48 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

physical and social development they were to conform to the same idea^ 
and ideals as the adult. 

Slide 290 is a title page from Hobbs' Leviathan, published in 165 1. 
This indicates the philosophical backing which underlay the dominant 
educational practices of the latter half of the 17th and the i8th century. 
Hobbs formulated this philosophy as it related to government. The figure 
on the title page gives the entire social conception. Here society is repre- 
sented as the leviathan or huge giant. Upon inspection this leviathan is 
seen to be composed of a very great number of individuals representing 
every class and occupation in society. In other words the individual dis- 
appears in the social group and has no place otherwise. These slides are 
to be taken as a background to the movement which began with Rousseau, 
which movement is illustrated in the following slides. See Text Book, 
ch. 10; Brief Course, ch. 10, and the references appended thereto. 

Slide 291. The first serious effort to put the Rousseau ideas into school 
practice was by the German Basedow. In 1774 he published his Elemen- 
tarwerk which was accompanied by a volume of illustrations. This slide 
reproduces one page of that volume, containing the four illustrations — 
this one for the children's games. This is reproduced in order to show 
the fact that even after fifteen years of the influence of the Rousseau 
ideas in edtication as to the freeing of children, there yet persisted the 
stilted life, activities, costume of the children. The boys wear the sword 
and chapeau, and the girls the crinoline of the adult, as shown in this illus- 
tration. A recent reprint has been made of Basedow's Eleiitentarzrerk 
though quite expensive. Text Book, pp. 577-583. Also Barnard's German 
Teachers and Educators. 

Slide 292. A general view of the castle and village of Burgdorf. In 
this castle at Burgdorf, Pestalozzi held his first school, that for the poor 
children, while the ordinary village school for the better to do children 
was kept by the village cobbler. For this and the following slides see 
Text Book, pp. 597-622; Brief Course, pp. 307-319. See Barnard, Krusi, 
and other references as found in Text Book and Syllabus. 

Slide 293. Pestalozzi's first experience in teaching was at Stanz (on 
Lake Lucerne) in 1798. Here he took charge of a group of children 
orphaned by one of the massacres incident to the French Revolution. 
There were no teaching aids whatever. Hence without books Pestalozzi 
began his experience of teaching from things. The illustration is an 
early 19th century woodcut. See references as in other slides. 

Slide 294. Court yard of the castle of Burgdorf where Pestalozzi first 
taught school, as it is at the present time. Now, as then, a part of the 
castle is used as a prison, as is shown in the centre. To the left marked 
by the tablet is the room where Pestalozzi taught. The castle was also 
used as a home for the poor children, and consequently it was there that 
Pestalozzi was employed to teach. See Text Book, pp. 597-621 ; also Krusi. 



DEVKLOPMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 40 

Slide 205. From Burgdorf Pestalozzi moved to Yverdun (on Lake 
Neuchatel) where he labored for 20 years as the head of an experimental 
and training school. From here went out his great European influence. 
See references as above. The illustration is a modern photograph showing 
the castle in which Pcstalozzi's school was held. The larg.' memorial 
window marks the room where Pestalozzi taught. 

Slide 296. A double page from an American geography illustrating 
the Pestalozzian method, Hooker's Primary Geography, from near the 
middle of the 19th century. The first chapter is on the school room (with 
a diagram) ; the second on the school yard; then follow village, township, 
county, state, etc., each with man. 

Slide 297. The original infant school taught by Jean-Frederic Oberlin 
about 1790. Oberlin lived near Strassburg, then French territory. Among 
other things done to improve social conditions after the ravages of the 
French Revolution, Oberlin started infant schools. The illustration is a 
crude woodcut of that period. See Cyclopedia, Vol. 3, pp. 432; Vol. 4, 
p. 522; Text Book, pp. 127-9. Other references as in Cyclopedia. 

Slide 298. Keilhau in Rudolstadt (in the Thuringen mountains) where 
Froebel founded his Universal German Educational Institute in 1817. 
In this quiet, isolated hamlet Froebel taught and experimented for nearly 
20 years. Even at present the village only has one or two hundred people 
and is quite isolated. The Keilhau school is a private school of secondary 
grade. 

Slide 299. The original kindergarten building at Blankenburg. This 
work Froebel started in 1837, finding it easier with younger children 
to apply his revolutionary educational ideas. Blankenburg is a village in 
the Thuringen forest near Keilhau. It is accessible and has now become 
a flourishing summer resort. For the kindergarten, see references in 
Svllabus, Cyclopedia and Text Book on Froebel and Kindergarten, and 
the discussions in the last two. The building, previous to Froebel's 
occupancy, was an old mill. It is situated at the mouth of a mountain 
ravine and at least at the time of a recent visit continued to house some 
educational work. 

Slide 300. The German Institute founded by Froebel, as it is at present. 
The center building in the illustration was erected in Froebel's time and 
used as the main building. While the establishment now is much larger 
it is even yet meagerly equipped and is run on economic lines hardly con- 
ceivable in America. Yet here many revolutionary ideas were worked out. 
Slide 399 is a recent illustration of the work of this institution. These 
illustrations are from photographs obtained by the present writer on the 
ground. See Froebel and Kindergarten references as above. 



Descriptive Pamphlet of Stereopticon Views 
in the History of Education 

SET VI!. AMERICAN EDUCATION 

(Note. This pamphlet gives references to books where descriptive matter relating 
to the slides may be readily found. All references to Monroe's Te.vt Book in the 
History of Education are given as Text Book; to Monroe's Brief Course iit the History 
of Education are given as Brief Course: to Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education as Cyclo- 
pedia. Fuller reierences will be found in A Syllabus of the Course of Study in the 
History of Education by the same author, published by the Macmillan Company, price 
25 cents. Full titles of other works referred to in the pamphlet are given in the 
Syllabus.) 

Slide 301. A town school in Dedham with the watch tower. This 
school was built in 1648 and this old drawing was made from the directions 
given in the town records of that period. It is probably the earliest 
illustration of an American elementary school that we have, although 
there were such schools established before the Dedham school. These 
town schools were erected into a system by the Massachusetts law of 
1647 but they had developed in many of the towns much earlier. See 
Cyclopedia, Colonial Period of Education, Vol. 2, pp. 1 14-122. See also 
histories by Boone and Dexter and Martin's Evolution of the Massachu- 
setts State School System. See also History of the Dedham School by 
Slafter. 

Slide 302. A colonial kitchen school of the early i8th century. 
When the town population became scattered, the school was no longer 
held exclusively in the central town school house. This necessitated the 
holding of schools in a number of isolated communities. These were at 
first held in private houses, usually in the living room, hence the so-called 
kitchen school. In time rooms were added to many of these farm houses 
for school purposes, still retaining the name kitchen schools. This illus- 
tration comes from the colony of New Jersey although such schools were 
more common in New England. See references as above. Also Murray's 
Colonial Education in Nczv Jersey. 

Slide 303. The first stage of division of the town school was the 
so-called moving school where the teacher moved about from school to 
school. The second stage was the divided school where a number of 
teachers were employed and the schools ran simultaneously. This neces- 
sitated houses in various parts of the town. The illustration is one 
of such schools from Connecticut, in the period preceding the Revo- 
lution. It will be recognized that this is the beginning of the district 
school. See Martin as above, and especially Updegrafif, The Origin of the 
Moving School in Massachusetts. 

Slide 304. The school in a Dutch colony was of the town type super- 
vised by the Church but supported either by the Dutch West India Com- 
pany or later by the municipality. For a time (about 1652) the town school 

50 



AMERICAN KDUCATION 5^ 

in New Amsterdam was probably held in the City Hall, one room of which 
was later used as a tavern. This was a large building and no doubt used 
for a variety of purposes. This building is shown in the center of 
this 17th century cut. For the greater part of the time, however, thr 
school was held in the homes of the teachers. See Kilpatrick, The Dutch 
Schools of Colonial New York. Also references given above, especially 
Cyclopedia article. 

Sliuk 305. Seal of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 
Foreign Parts, which was also used as a book plate. This society, which 
was the missionary society of the Church of England, was responsible 
for the support of most of the charity or public elementary schools in 
the English royal proprietary colonies during the i8th century The 
Society also furnished books for church and school libraries and thus 
made the first contribution to Columbia University library. Hence their 
seal was used as a book plate. The illustration on the seal gives their con- 
ception of education and their attitude towards the Indians and school 
education. Unfortunately the reality did not bear out the idea ex- 
pressed in the seal. See Cyclopedia article on Colonial Period and es- 
pecially Kemp's The Support of Schools in Colonial New York by the 
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. 

Slide 306. The town and church schools of the early colonial period 
were supplemented by the dame schools. In fact it was a common require- 
ment for that period that children should know how to read before enter- 
ing the town school. Hence the necessity of these dame schools which 
taught the children the alphabet, possibly the catechism, and the rudiments 
of reading. This illustration is a modern reconstruction and while quite 
accurate is not authoritative in a historical sense. See references as above. 

Slide 307. A New England summer school of the i8th century. Here 
the school was divided ; the winter session was usually held in the central 
village, taught by a man and attended only by the older children. The 
summer school was held in divided schools in different parts of the town, 
attended by younger children and in time taught chiefly by women. 
This explains the introduction of women into the school profession. The 
illustration comes from Bowles' Spelling Book, giving a picture of the 
school. 

Slide 308 is taken from the Pennsylvania Gazette of 1759 and gives an 
advertisement of a private school. This shows the dominant type of school 
in most of the colonies outside of New England. Same references as 
above, especially Martin, Dexter, Boone ; also Meriwether's Colonial 
Curriculum. 

Slide 309 is an advertisement from the Pennsylvania Gazette of 1753. 
showing one of the methods of school support. This is advertising a 
lottery undertaken as a philanthropic venture by a number of young men 
whose character is certified. Half the funds realized was to go to the 



52 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

school, the remainder for private expenses. The lottery was used quite 
commonly throughout the colonial period both for colleges and for schools. 

Slide 310 also comes from the Pennsylvania Gazette of 1756 and 
illustrates the type of school master very common at that time. He is 
frequcntl}- an indentured servant who at times is anxious to get away from 
his obligations, hence the runaway school master. 

Slide 311 is a similar advertisement from the New York Weekly Post 
Boy of 1751 Such advertisements are very frequent. See references a? 
above. 

Slide 312, an advertisement in the Pennsylvania Gazette of 1735 
of a school master ofifercd for sale for a given number of years, again 
shows the indentured servant as school master. 

Slide 313 is an advertisement from the New York Mercury of 1756 
showing another type of the private school, undertaken purely as a private 
venture, while that of Slide ,308 is rather a community school, in the South 
known as an Old Field School, in other places as a Hedge School. 

Slide 314, from the New York newspapers of 1760, gives a proclama- 
tion from the Governor of Nevv' Jerse}' asserting his authority over all 
school masters. This monopoly was exercised by a number of the royal 
governors and was for the purpose of keeping the school master both 
loyal and orthodox. 

Slide 315 shows the Salem school house during the i8th century. The 
Salem schools were among the first town schools to develop, and went 
through all of the stages of school support leading to the establishment of 
the free public schools. Note the whipping post in front of the school 
house on the public square, probably used both for adult offenders and for 
the school children. See Jackson, Rise of School Support in Massachu- 
setts. See references as above. 

Slide 316. One of the most prominent school masters of the late iSth 
century in New England was Mr. Bingham. This gives a picture of his 
school, one of the town schools of Boston. He is the author of many 
text books and this slide is from the frontispiece of The Child's Com- 
panion, a concise spelling book which went through many editions. 

Slide 317. A district school in Connecticut in the middle 19th century, 
from Barnard's Journal. For the character of the district school at that 
period, see the discussions in Horace Mann's Reports or in Barnard's 
Journal. Also Hinsdale's Horace Mann or Martin's Evolution of the 
Massachusetts State School System. 

Slide 318 shows the district school at work. This is an illustration of 
Ichabod Crane's school, drawn from an early edition of Irving's work. 
While an imaginary representation it gives the spirit of many of these 
schools and no doubt is an idealization of what was actually in existence. 
In addition to the above references see Taylor, The District School as it 
Was. 



AMERICAN EDUCATION 



53 



Slide 319 Photograph of a contract between school master and dis- 
trict school board of a Massachusetts town in the early 19th century. 

Slide 3-0 is an illustration taken from Henry Barnard's American 
Journal of Education. Vol. 32. and purports to give the full equipment of 
the district school of the middle of the 19th century. 

Slide 3-1 is a cartoon of early 19th century published by the American 
Common School Society, showing the district school as it was. See refer- 
ences to 3^7 and 318. 

Slide ^22 is a portrait of Horace Mann. Mann's great work was to 
show up \he evils of the district system and to bring about in Massa- 
chusetts a revival of the town system for greater centraUzation, together 
with supervision and the improvement of teachers. These '■ef«'■'^^7^^^ 
all dependent upon the elimination of the old district system. They did not 
occur until after Mann's term of office was completed but were due to 
his activity. See references as above, also Hinsdale's Horace Mann and 
Hubbell's Horace Mann. 

Slid- ^2^ Schools in the larger cities were built up on the basis of 
the Lanc;st;rian system. Private schools and church schools were inaoe- 
quate for the needs of these growing communities. Municipalities had 
not yet become accustomed to support such activities Consequently in 
most of them quasi-public societies usually called Pt:blic School Societ.es 
grew up, supporting systems of Lancasterian schools This is an 1 lus- 
Tration from the Manual of the Georgetown. D. C. Lancasterian School 
n he early part of the century, and illustrates how the school should run. 
This and the following slides should be taken in connection with slides 
,87-391 See references appended to these slides, and also m writings on 
Lancasier especially Bourne, History of the Public School Society of New 
York. 

Slide 324 is from the same source as above, showing the improper con- 
duct of the Lancasterian school. 

Slidf 325 shows the series of Lancaster school buildings in Lan^^^^er 
Pa. Philadelphia formed the first and Lancaster ^he second schoo 
district of Pennsylvania building up a free school system. These were 
both on the Lancasterian basis. 

Slidf 326. Photograph of the first page of a subscription book of the 
Free School Society of New York, which was founded in 1805 by a 
number 7 philanthropic gentlemen of New York. A-ong them the 
kader was deWitt Clinton, the first and largest subscriber and for long 
he prerdentTf the Society. This illustration will indicate the meagre 
fuppo^t of public schools given in this period by the wea t^.s com 
munity in the country. See Bourne as above, also Palmer. The New 
York Public Schools. 

Slide 327 is a picture of the first school house built by this Society in 
New York in 1809. The upper room was a Lancasterian school room 



54 STERKOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

seating 500 children ; the lower floor was used as a residence for the 
school master, later on as a lower class of the Lancasterian school. See 
references as above. 

Slide 328 is a colonial horn-book. It illustrates the first stage of the 
curriculum. See in this connection slides 283 and following. See Tuer's 
History of the Horn-Book. 

Slide 329. In place of the Protestant Tutor and the Protestant School 
Master, used generally in England from the late 17th century, there came 
into almost universal use in the American colonies the N'ezv England 
Primer. This is a photograph of the title page and of the board back of 
the oldest extant edition, that of 1727, for which the Lenox Library paid 
over $5000. It was probably the most widely circulated text book that 
America has produced. See Ford's Nezv England Primer. 

Slide 330 shows the alphabet from the New England Primer. This 
indicates a combination in its method of the Comenian influence (see 
slide 369) and that of the Protestant School Master (slide 329) and simi- 
lar books. For the illustrations of natural phenomena and forces in Com- 
enius. we have here a substitute of religious incidents. 

Slide 331, also from the New England Primer, gives one of its constant 
features, the martyrdom of Mr. John Rogers. This again shows a simi- 
larity of the text to that of the Protestant School Master and similar 
religious text books. 

Slide 332 illustrates the development of the horn-book and the primer 
into the battledore, a combination of these, and an early stage in the de- 
velopment of the early 19th centurj^ primer. See Tuer and Ford as above. 

Slide ^33- The curriculum of an academy for young ladies, from the 
earlj' 19th century. An advertisement from a Virginia newspaper. 

E. Armston (or perhaps better known by the name of Gardner) con- 
tinues the School at Point Pleasant, Norfolk Borough, where is a large 
and convenient House proper to accommodate young Ladies as Boarders ; 
at which School is taught Petit Point in Flowers, Fruit, Landscape, and 
Sculpture, Nun's Work, Embroidery in Silk, Gold, Silver, Pearls, or 
embossed. Shading of all Kinds, in the various Works in Vogue, Dresden 
Point Work, Lace Ditto. Catgut in different Modes, flourishing Muslin, 
after the newest Taste, and most elegant Pattern Waxwork in Figure, 
Fruit, or Flowers, Shell Ditto, or grotesque. Painting in Water Colours 
and Mezzotinto ; also the Art of taking off Foliage, with several other 
Embellishments necessary for the Amusement of Persons of Fortune who 
have Taste. Specimens of the Subscriber's Work may be seen at her 
House, as also of her Scholars ; having taught several years in Norfolk. 
and elsewhere, to general Satisfaction. She flatters herself that those 
Gentlemen and Ladies who have hitherto employed her will grant their 
further Indulgence, as no Endeavours shall be wanting to complete what 
is above mentioned, with a first Attention to the Behaviour of those 
Ladies intrusted to her Care. 



AMERICAN r.DUCATION ■;.' 

Reading will be her peculiar Care ; Writing and Arithmetick will be 
taught by a Master properly qualified ; and, if desired, will engage Pro- 
ficients in Musick and Dancing. 

Slide 334. This is a double page from an early United States history 
called the Historical Reader by R. T. Hunt, published in 1815, showing 
the dominance of the religious spirit. This book was advertised as a 
document of spiritual style and thus claimed the support of school author- 
ities. The influence of the religious conception of education is indicated 
by the form of language used. 

Slide 335. An illustration from The Little Grammarian, an early 19th 
century text book. It indicates both the adoption and the interpretation 
of the realistic method as well as the continued dominance of the dis- 
ciplinary conception of education. 

Slide 336 is an illustration of Owen's Pestalozzian school at New Har- 
mony, Ind. This was one of the earliest attempts to embody the Pesta- 
lozzian idea in American schools. It was taught by Joseph Neef who 
was brought over to this country by McClure in the first decade of 
the century. See W. S. Monroe, History of Pestalo::sianism in America. 
Also Lockwood and Prosser. The New Harmony Movement. 

Slide i2>7 gives one of the early advertisements of a Pestalozzian 
school. This comes from a Virginia newspaper of 1816. See Monroe 
as above, together with Barnard's Journal and his volume on Pesta- 
loz^ianism. 

Slide 338 is a diploma from a Girls' Academy of the early 19th century. 
It shows the expansion of the curriculum and especially the type of 
education then being developed for girls. See article on Women, Higher 
Education of, in Cyclopedia. 

Slide 339 is an early engraving of the earliest institution for the higher 
education of women in this country, that of the Bethlehem, Pa., Semin- 
ary in 1786. established by the Moravians. The illustration shows the 
Sisters' House, the old church, and the community store house. 

Slide 340. The Troy Seminary, Troy, N. Y., in 1822, founded by Mrs. 
Emma Hart Willard. This was the first institution for the higher -educa- 
tion of women to receive state aid. References as above. 

Slide 341 gives the examination room in the Troy Seminary. The 
oral examinations given here formed one of the conspicuous academic 
features of the early 19th century. References as above and in Barnard's 
Journal. 

Slide 342 is a New England academy in the early 19th century. In 
the background is the early academy founded in the late i8th century. 
In the foreground is the new academy, built in the early 19th century, 
while to the right is the dormitory. Such institutions grew up all over 
New England and in fact in all of the states. Some states such as New 



56 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

York, numbered almost three hundred such institutions. As a system 
they died with the growth of the high school. See Brown. The Making 
of our Middle Schools. 

Slide 343 is from a pamphlet on Popular Education by J. Orville Tay- 
lor, published in 1856. It gives the real and the ideal of the district 
school. See references as above on the district system. 

Slide 344 shows the evolution of the high school in what is now a 
portion of New York City. The upper picture is the old divided school 
used until 1851 ; the second is the ward school used from 1851 to 1901 and 
showing the influence of the classical ideals of the middle of the i8th cen- 
tury. No. 3 is a 20th century school house and indicates the development 
of the unified city system after the passing of the ward system. 

Slide 345 gives the ideal of the school of 1876. It is taken from the 
Educational Monthly during the Centennial year. Note the severity, stiff- 
ness and lack of freedom evidenced in every detail of the school room. 
This comes from a period of probably the greatest dominance of mechan- 
ical ideas in our public school work, and illustrates the influence of an 
extreme interpretation of the Pestalozzian method. 

Slide 346, the ideal of 1900, shows a class in geography in open-air 
work. This study of actual objects and of processes of nature direct, 
rather than through books, is a method sought for in almost every subject. 
With our large classes it cannot be made a substitute for text book 
work, but can supplement it at least. Photographs of modern school 
work of almost any school can be used to amplify this idea. Many such 
can be drawn from reports of superintendents of schools. 

Slide 347 is an illustration of the modern kindergarten which might 
be duplicated from almost any city. Compare this slide with Slides 391- 
398 of the following" set. References under these. 

Slide 348 is an illustration of the outdoor school. This is a recent 
development originating in German)- in the last two decades. For discus- 
sion and literature see the Cyclopedia, Vol. 4, pp. 348-351, where will be 
found further illustrations ; see especially Ayres' Open Air Schools and 
almost any modern school hygiene. 

Slide 349 is a modification of the open-air school and of the modern 
playground necessitated in our large cities. Most of the new school build- 
ings in these communities are built with a roof garden or playground or 
school room or all combined. This is an illustration taken from one of 
the New York schools. See the literature on outdoor schools as above, or 
on playgrounds. 

Slide 350 is a photograph of a district school house of the old type. 
The dominance of the Little Red Schoolhouse in our traditions and 
literature is very marked, though there is much more to be said of its 
modern less picturesque substitute. See discussions above on the district 
school. Old reports of State Superintendent of Public Instruction will 
furnish many such illustrations. 



Descriptive Pamphlet of Stereoptieon Views 
in the History of Education 

SET VIII. DEVELOPMENT OF METHOD 

(Note. This pamphlet gives references to books where descriptive matter relating 
to the slides may be readily found. All references to Monroe's Te.vt Book in the 
History of Education are given as Te.vt Book; to Monroe's Brief Course in the History 
of Education are given as Brief Course: to Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education as Cyclo- 
pedia. Fuller references will be found in A Syllabus of the Course of Study in the 
History of Education by the same author, published by the Macmillan Conipany, price 
25 cetits. Full titles of other works referred to in the pamphlet are given in the 
Syllabus.) 

Slide 351-352. Title page and first page of a copy of Donatus printed 
in the i6th century. Donatus was the elementary Latin grammar written 
in the 4th Christian century. This text — the one most commonly used — 
was the second of the three parts — "On the Eight Parts of Speech". It 
was almost universally used for a thousand years and even beyond the 
Renaissance period. As Slide 352 indicates, it consisted of the "dry 
bones" of grammar : definitions and paradigms to be learned "by heart". 
See Cyclopedia article for references. Also Sandys, History of Classical 
Scholarship, and references on the seven liberal arts (slides 110-114). 
See also Monroe's Thomas Platter. 

Slide 353. A double page from the grammar of Priscian, from an 
early i6th century edition. This page shows how text and comment 
were arranged in early printed books. This specimen is a fine example of 
early printing. Priscianus Caesariensis taught in Constantinople and 
published his Institutionis Grammaticae about 526. It is quite an elaborate 
work and was the basis of all subsequent works on grammar. The 
volume from which this illustration is taken is a large quarto of 300 
pages, and in fine print. More than 250 authors are quoted — many of 
them more than 100 times. It contains more than 700 quotations from 
Vergil. Consequently Priscian served as a thesaurus of literature as 
well as a text in grammar. It was used as the text for all study in 
advance of Donatus. See references as above. 

5lide 354. "The Marriage of Philology and Mercury" is a fanciful 
allegory written by an African scholar, Martinus Capella who flourished 
in the late fourth and early fifth century. The work is really a treatise 
on the seven liberal arts. Apollo presents as gifts to the bride, seven 
maid servants, who are the seven liberal arts. (See Slides 1 10-123). The 
speeches of these maid servants, with their introduction, constitute the 
treatise on the arts. This work was frequently used as a higher text, its 
allegorical form offering excellent opportunity for disputation. Text 
Book, pp. 268-9. For a translation of a portion of Capella, see Cole, 
Later Roman Education (in Teachers College Publications). Also Tay- 
lor, or Abelson, as in the Syllabus. 

57 



58 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Slide 355. A page from a 14th century manuscript copy of the Doc- 
trinale of Alexander de Villa Dei. This is a Latin grammar in verse 
written about 11 19, which formed a frequent substitute for Donatus. Its 
aim was to simplify the task of memorizing by throwing the essentials 
of grammar into verse. It is composed of 2645 lines of which 1073 are 
devoted to syntax, 476 to prosody and 1095 to quantity, accent and figures. 
See references as above. The most elaborate work on Alexander is Vol. 
XII of Monumcnta Germaniac Pedagogica, by Reichwig. 

Slide 356. The Distycha of Cato was also a text commonly used to 
simplify the task of learning Latin. This consists of a series of 
apothems and moral sayings cast into two line verse or distichs. While 
these were probably drawn from a variety of sources they were all 
attributed to Cato, the Roman statesman of the 2d century B. C. They 
formed a favorite text as the earliest reading book, especially as a means 
of building up a vocabulary. They were used in every variety of form. 
The slide gives a double page from an edition in Greek, Latin and Ger- 
man. These bi- or tri-lingual texts afforded a favorite method of study. 
See references as above. 

Slide 357. With the Renaissance there was a simplification of Latin 
grammar and an enrichment of language study. How complicated this 
study of grammar yet remained is indicated by this double page from 
Lily where seven genders are given. William Lily (1468-1522) was one 
of the English students in Italy in the early Renaissance period, and first 
headmaster of St. Paul's when it was refounded by Colet in 1512. His 
Latin grammar became the "Donatus" for English schoolboys for several 
hundred years ; King Henry's Grammar and the Eton grammar are 
modifications only. See references as above ; also Watson, English Gram- 
mar Schools to 1660. 

Slide 358. A woodcut of 1519 by Hans Burgkmair, showing a disputa- 
tion by scholars. The description of Slide 160 and of related slides ap- 
plies here, though this is of several centuries later. See Rashdall and 
other references imder universities for discussion of disputation as a 
method. 

Slide 359. A crude woodcut used by Martin Flach at Basel in 1473. 
This is supposed to be the oldest woodcut school scene. It shows the 
method of argument or apposition used by pupils and teachers, as th ; 
pupil attempts to imitate the processes of analysis, etc., used by the 
teacher. 

Slide 360. A woodcut of 1485 used by an unknown printer in several 
text books. It shows a school with an unusual number of pupils for these 
early woodcuts. The method of instruction is individual and consists in 
this method of apposition between master and pupil. 

Slide 361. A woodcut of a school scene from the i6th century by the 
artist Hans Burgkmair (1475-1531). Here there seems to be more of a 
group recitation, the position of the children's fingers indicating the form 
of the argument. For details of early method in this and previous slides. 



DEVELOPMENT OF METHOD 59 

see Foster Watson's The English Grammar Schools to j66o: also his 
Introduction of Nezv Subjects into the Curriculum. 

Slide 362. A double page from the Ciccronianus of Netzolius. Tho 
narrow humanists exalted Cicero into the position held by Aristotle 
under scholasticism. Practically all the students' time was devoted to a 
study of Cicero. Erasmus pictures the students as groaning under the 
burden of the hugh books of comment, phrase and reference books. For 
the aim of the Ciceronians was to express every idea in Ciceronian 
phrase. This volume of Netzolius is one of the huge phrase books. Text 
Book, pp. 370-375. See Scott, Erasmus' Ciccronianus, and also her Con- 
troversies over the Imitation of Cicero (both in Teachers College pub- 
lications). 

Slide 363. A drawing from the early i6th century, illustrating the 
early Reformation school and the use of the catechetical method. While 
the catechetical method was used frequently throughout the late Middle 
Ages, and even as early as Alcuin, its use was greatly emphasized by the 
Reformation controversies. The pictures indicate the visit of the school 
committee to a German village school, and the catechising of the children 
by the village pastor. The teacher is in the rear of the room. The use 
of the blackboard for catechetical recitations— now chiefly on religious 
materials — is indicated. 

Slide 364. A double page from Comenius' Gate of Languages Un- 
locked, first published in 1631. This illustration comes from the English 
edition of 1650 translated by Thomas Horn. The Janua is one of the out- 
standing works in the history of method and involves most of the ideas 
later made more generally applicable by Pestalozzi. 

Text Book, pp. 483-496; Brief Course, pp. 238-246. See Comenius, 
which is the best book in English on the subject. See also Keatinge's 
Comenius' Great Didactic. 

5'lide 365. A double page from the Portal to the Gate of Languages. 
This was a simpler book preparatory to the Janua, written by Comenius 
after experience had shown the Janua to be somewhat too difhcult for 
beginning pupils. References as above. 

Slide 366. To the Portal an English educator prefixes a work en- 
titled The Foundation of the Gate of Tongues. The principles involved 
in this are quite the contrary of those elaborated by Comenius. The chief 
idea seems to be that of making the memorization of the Latin vocabulary 
easier. This is done through the mnemonic device of having practically 
every word of the given chapter begin with the same letter of the alphabet. 
The page given is that of the letter B. While it works out somewhat 
better in Latin than in the English, the complete elimination of the idea 
of content can be seen from the reading of the English. Thus in general 
the Comenian ideas were prostituted before they were taken into the 
school. In the edition owned by the writer these three works illustrated 
in slides 364-365-366 are bound in the same volume. References as above. 



6o STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Slide 367. Instruction through illustration was introduced even before 
the time of Comenius, though not in a systematic plan. Slide 367 
is taken from a work entitled .-Irs M cniorativa printed in Ausgburg in 
1475 ^^Y Anton Sorg. The pictures illustrate the meaning of the ordinary 
German words. 

Slide 368. The use of illustrations to convey religious ideals was 
quite common, being carried over from the church. This slide is an illus- 
tration from a German catechism published previous to the Reformation. 
It was especially common to illustrate the Lord's Prayer and the Command- 
ments so as to make them somewhat more concrete to the child. These 
slides will show that the use of illustrations in teaching did not come in 
with Comenius. The importance of this work can be learned from the 
discussions of the Comenian material given above. 

Slide 369 is an alphabet from the early edition of Comenius' Orbis 
Pictus, published in 1657. The idea of the Orbis Pictus was to bring the 
picture of the object to the child's attention. The Janua and similar books 
made instruction center on the object. The Orbis Pictus brought pictures 
of objects into the school room. With the alphabet the idea was the 
onomatopoetic one of having the child get the sound through some sound 
in nature with which he was familiar. Hence the illustration of the wind, 
the goose, the cricket, and so on. This illustration comes from a common 
English edition of 1777. There are earlier English editions. 

Slide 370. Page containing the school from an English edition of the 
Orbis Pictus. All social institutions as well as moral ideals were illus- 
trated and made the basis of instruction. This illustration will show the 
common method. The different figures in the illustration are numbered 
and the numbers introduced into the text. In this way the identification 
of word and object is made certain. 

Slide 371 Title page to the Vestibula Rerum of Comenius. This is 
from a Dutch edition of 1673. This work on the "gate to things", really 
a treatise on the whole round of natural science, was not so generally 
used as the Gate of Languages. It was a nearer approach to the study 
of the phenomena of nature than the schools of that period were prepared 
for. For the significance of this realistic movement and the details of 
Comenius' work, see references as above. 

Slide 372. A double page from the Orbis Pictus of Comenius, indicat- 
ing the introduction of the stud}- of objects and of materials of the 
animal and vegetable world into the schools through the study of Latin. 
References as above. 

Slide 2i72>- This same realistic method was carried to extreme in its 
application to idealistic subjects. This slide gives the illustration and a 
part of the text of the chapter on the Human Soul in Comenius' Orbis 
Pictus. How successful the realistic method was when applied to such 
subjects can be judged from the text. 

Slide 374. A page from the London Vocabulary, a very generally used 
introductory text in Latin, showing the modification and simplification 
of the Comenian idea in the i8th century. 



DF.VELOPMKNT OF METHOD 



6l 



Slide 375 shows the modern survival and interpretation of the 
Comenian method. This is from a 20th century text book used quite 
commonly in the German gymnasium and realschule. The illustration shows 
the chapter on the third declension in which practically all the paradyms 
are illustrations of this declension. At the same time the entire chapter 
centers around the illustration of the Roman orator and the text dis- 
cusses this phase of Roman life. 

Slide 376. An illustration from an English grammar of tht- early i8th 
century showing a rather superficial interpretation of the realistic method 
of teaching. There were many varieties of this. 

Slide ^77. A double page from Coote's English Schoolmaster pub 
lished about 1650. See slide 288 for a description of the importance of 
Coote and the references there. This slide gives some illustration of the 
method of teaching arithmetic as well as reading. Coote's was by far 
the most advanced work on method of this period. 

Slide 378 illustrates the great change that came over education in 
the later i8th century. It is a copper engraving by Chodowiecki entitled 
Reformed EAuc2.t\on—V erbesserte Erziehung—lrom Salzmann's Taschcn- 
buch. Chodowiecki was the artist who illustrated Basedow. Salzmann 
and a great number of works in this period. Hence he contributed largely 
to education. Salzmann was one of the followers of Basedow and of 
Rousseau. See Text Book, pp. 580-583; Cyclopedia and references ap- 
pended. The illustration shows that education has now been taken out 
of doors. The boys are engaged in ball playing, swimming, rowing, 
gathering natural objects and discussing them with the teacher. 

Slide 370. The school as illustrated in Basedow's Elenientarwerk 
published in 1774. This is a copper plate by Schuster, a pupil of Cho- 
dowiecki. It illustrates instruction in natural science through pictures of 
natural objects and gives the Basedow conception of the school. This 
work of Basedow was the next great step after that of Com^nius in the 
introduction of the study of things into the school. See Text Book. pp. 
377-383 •' Cvclopedia and references appended. The fullest account in 
English of the work of Basedow is probably in Barnard's German Teachers 
and Educators. 

Slide 380. Also from Basedow's Elementariverk, by Chodowiecki. It 
shows the application of the realistic method to instruction in morals. It 
illustrates the fall of Adam on the right, the conflict between the Arch- 
angel Michael and Satan in the center. On the left the effect on the 
pupils is well indicated by their attitude and expression. This type of 
instruction was quite popular in the realistic period and is used very 
extensively in France at the present time. See references as above ; also 
Cyclopedia on Moral Education. 

5"lide 381. Also by Chodowiecki, from Ziegenhagen, published in I799- 
It .shows an experiment in the laboratory in electricity and the explanation 
of lightning. 



62 STEREO PTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Slide 382 is a typical German school of the late i8th century. It is a 
woodcut used in a number of books of that period. Note the character 
of the teacher, the punishment of the pupil on the esel, the spirit of the 
schoolroom and the conception of interest illustrated in the lower left 
hand corner where the boy kneels on a triangular block of wood until he 
masters the alphabet. 

Slide 383 is Pestalozzi's school at Stanz. This is a companion-piece 
to slide 293, an early 19th century illustration of the same subject. Same 
references as 293. 

Slide 384. A double page from a Pestalozzian geography. Illustra- 
tion from Hooker's Primary Geography. A companion-piece to Slide 296. 
Same description will cover it. 

Slide 385 is an illustration from Fowler's Education and Self Improve- 
ment. It shows the numbering of the organs of the head, the faculties 
of the mind based upon the configuration of the skull. The importance 
of the phrenological movement in the development of early psychological 
ideas and their application to education is indicated in the Text Book, 
pp. 596-7. The writings of Combe and Fowler bear directly on this mat- 
ter. The writings of Fellenberg, Pestalozzi, Lancaster, Spurzheim, Horace 
Mann, are all more or less influenced by it. As a step in the develop- 
ment of our educational ideas, though erroneous as some of the other 
scientific ideas held at that time, phrenology is of interest. See the writ- 
ings of any of the men mentioned. 

Slide 386. Title page from Hornbye's Hornbook published, London, 
1622. It shows the individual method of instruction which prevailed 
generally until the early 19th century, when the monitorial system gen- 
erally replaced it by group instruction. Note the Hornbook with the 
alphabet, a book probably of religious character following. The bundle 
of birches forms a substitute for interest. The characteristics of the old 
alphabetic method of learning to read are recognized. 

Slide 387. The Lancasterian schoolroom as illustrated in Lancas- 
ter's British System of Education published in 181 2. The school is 
divided into different groups, each controlled by the class monitor 
shown at the left of the rows of seats. The entire school is con- 
trolled by orders, numbers, or signals given on the bell and worked in a 
The teacher is seen at the left. The entire conduct of the school is con- 
trolled by orders, numbers or signals given on the bell and worked in a 
most mechanical manner. Around the sides of the room are sten hanging 
the battledores which contain the lessons. On the floor are the semi- 
circles upon which the group meet, the battledore is taken from the wall 
and hung on a peg, and the class recites under the direction of the monitor. 

^Jlide 388, from the same source, shows the working of the Lan- 
casterian schoolroom. Here the groups are gathered in class formation 
under the direction of the monitor. 

Slide 389. Position of scholars in the Lancasterian system as they 
follow a set of orders. In one case they are responding to the monitor 
of slates in a recitation. In the other they respond to the conduct monitor 
as they prepare for dismissal. Note that it takes about 13 orders for the 



» 



DEVELOPMENT OF METHOD 63 

boj- to set his cap on his head though the cap has been hanging on his 
head all the time. From the same source as 387-8. See references as in 
391. Specific explanations and directions are given in the text of the 
manual. 

Slide 390 is an illustration from a German source showing the 
.system of rewards in the Lancasterian school. Lancaster elaborates these 
rewards into a most extensive system. This involved the chief expense 
since more was spent on rewards than on text books. The rewards 
included books, shoes, tops, cake, and a variety of other articles. 

Slide 391. also from a German source, shows the methods of punish- 
ment of the Lancasterian school. Lancaster claimed to have eliminated 
corporal punishment. His German followers evidently did not. Lancaster 
substituted for corporal punishment a variety of novel forms of punish- 
ment based chiefly upon the idea of group discipline or the disgrace of 
the culprit. Hence the hanging of various marks of disapprobation around 
the neck of the offender, the wearing of the dunce cap, the hauling of the 
boy in a basket to the ceiling. This was combined in cases with fright, 
as shown by the boy tied to a post in the room and being frightened by 
some made-up ferocious character. For references to these four slides, 
see anyc/ the works of Lancaster, or the early history of New York City 
schools. Text Book, pp. 722-726 Cyclopedia, Vol. 3, pp. 621-622; Vol. 4, 
pp. 296-2 9. The best modern criticism of Lancaster is Salmon, Joseph 
Lancasti . 

Slide •^92. Wilderspin's Infant School. From Wilderspin's Education 
of the } 'ing. published in many editions through the first half of the 
19th cen iry. One great feature of the infant school was a gallery in 
which th».> children were massed for instruction by the teacher. Hence the 
phrase in the early part of the century of a "good gallery teacher". The 
infant school was the forerunner of the kindergarten, but how remote 
frorn ;\ is indicated in the following slides. 

"^ JS^IDE 393. The infant school at work, also from Wilderspin's Educa- 
ti^. of the Young. Here groups of children are seen marching through 
the room in lock step. Various forms of physical education were given. 
Most of the work was memoriter verbal work. The result was to make the 
children little prigs both intellectually and morally. The great advantage 
of these schools was that they brought little children into the school pro- 
cedure. For the infant school, see any of Wilderspin's works. Text Book, 
pp. 626-627. Cyclopedia, Vol. 3, pp. 452-454, 445-452. Other references ap- 
pended to these articles. 

Slide 394. A view of Owen's Institute at New Lanark. Scotland. 
Owen furthered (some claim founded) the infant school (slides 329-331) 
and developed the work for older children in these Institutes. Moral 
instruction (slide 395) was substituted for religious, science for linguis- 
tics, and pleasurable activities for the old discipline. See references to 
following slide. 

Slide 395. Two woodcuts from Robert Owen's essay on the Forma- 
tion of Human Character, published 1834. These show the type of moral 
instruction fostered in the infant school. This was to be a substitute for 



64 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

the religious instruction so prominent in the schools of that day and the 
earlier period. The crudity of this is very generally recognized at the 
present time, though instruction quite similar is elaborated in the French 
schools as well as in some English schools of the present. For the value 
of moral instruction, see Cyclopedia, Vol. 4, pp. 306-314. For Robert 
Owen, see Cyclopedia, Vol. 4, pp. 576-577, and references appended. See 
especially Podmore, Robert Owen. 

Slide 396. A circulating class with the method of instruction by 
inquiry. A, umpire ; B, medal stand, or point of reckoning ; C, the 
boy who is answering the question proposed by D, the boy below him ; E, 
the boy who has previously answered the question of F. The medals 
describe the number of circles gained or lost by those who wear them. 

Slide 397. Diagram of the circulating classes by John Stoat. (London, 
1826). The numbers described on the figures are intended to represent 
the children of the classes, and their individual relative proficiency Fig. 
I, A class of children arranged in the order of proficiency as evidenced 
by competition for places, according to the Madras system of education. 
No. I, the superior; No. 20, the inferior child, etc. Fig. 2, the circular 
class. U, the station of the umpire. Fig. 3, The numbers here show 
the mixed state of the superior and inferior children, and the advantageous 
position of the superior part of the class for instructing the nferior 
children, which is produced by the method of working circulating classes. 
E, The place of the medal stand, or point of reckoning. Fig- 4, The 
compound circulating class. E. The point of reckoning, etc., as ( escribed 
in the treatise. 

Slide 398. Froebel's first kindergarten on the village green at- Uanken- 
burg, Germany. This slide is in connection with slides 297-30 j. The 
location of the first kindergarten is given in slide 299. For the descrip- 
tion of Froebel's earlier kindergarten see his Autobiography and other 
Froebelian literature as per Cyclopedia, Text Book, or Syllabus. 

Slide 399- An illustration from a photograph taken four or five yt^'^rs 
ago showing the correlation of studies as now carried on in Froebt; s 
original institute. This is to be taken in connection with slide 300. These 
cottages are built by groups of students on the mountain beside the school. 
Here they carry out a life somewhat suggested by S^viss Family Robinson 
or Robinson Crusoe and attempt to correlate many of their school sub- 
jects around the activities which the group carry on in these little huts. 
It is a very simple though realistic and effective attempt to make school 
subjects grow out of life activities and connect with them. This idea is 
inherent in Froebel's theory. See his original work on The Education of 
Man. For more recent literature on this subject see article on Correlation 
in Cyclopedia with references appended. 

Slide 400 gives a number of views of the Montessori school taken 
from recent photographs. This series of pictures probably illustrates 
better than could any other group the various phases of the work of the 
Montessori school. For a brief outline of this work see article in Cyclo- 
pedia, Vol. 4, pp. 303-4. See volume and articles by Miss George, the 
volume by Professor Holmes, and the recent monograph by Kilpatrick. 



LiBRftRV OF CONGRESS 



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